Marketing of Gender Stereotypes through Animated Films: A Thematic Analysis of the Disney Princess Franchise

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

5-1-2015

Marketing of Gender Stereotypes through Animated Films: A Marketing of Gender Stereotypes through Animated Films: A

Thematic Analysis of the Disney Princess Franchise Thematic Analysis of the Disney Princess Franchise

Tiffany Jade Pelton

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations

Part of the Communication Commons, Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, Film and

Media Studies Commons, and the Gender and Sexuality Commons

Repository Citation Repository Citation

Pelton, Tiffany Jade, "Marketing of Gender Stereotypes through Animated Films: A Thematic Analysis of

the Disney Princess Franchise" (2015).

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

2411.

http://dx.doi.org/10.34917/7646020

This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by Digital Scholarship@UNLV

with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the

the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/

or on the work itself.

This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones by

an authorized administrator of Digital Scholarship@UNLV. For more information, please contact

digitalscholarship@unlv.edu.

MARKETING OF GENDER STEREOTYPES THROUGH ANIMATED FILMS:

A THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE DISNEY PRINCESS FRANCHISE

Tiffany J. Pelton

Bachelors of Arts in English

Southern University and A&M College

2009

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the

Master of Arts - Journalism & Media Studies

The Hank Greenspun School of Journalism and Media Studies

The Graduate College

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

May 2015

Thesis Approval

The Graduate College

The University of Nevada, Las Vegas

April 30, 2015

This thesis prepared by

Tiffany Jade Pelton

entitled

Marketing of gender stereotypes through animated films: A thematic analysis of the

Disney Princess franchise

is approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts - Journalism and Media Studies

Gregory Borchard, Ph.D., Committee Chair

Lawrence Mullen, Ph.D., Committee Member

Olesya Venger, Ph.D., Committee Member

Maile Chapman, Ph.D., Graduate College Representative

Kathryn Hausbeck Korgan, Ph.D., Interim Dean of the Graduate College

iii"

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my committee for directing me through this endeavor.

Thanks to my chair Dr. Gregory Borchard, for guiding me through the process and

encouraging me to push forward. I also want to thank the rest of my committee Dr. Larry

Mullen, Dr. Olesya Venger, and Dr. Maile Chapman for their inspiration, expertise and

constructive criticism. A special thank you to Peggy, Crystal, Carrie, Marilyn, Tye and

the rest of my family for always supporting my dreams and encouraging me to go for

them. A last thank you will go to my friends and fellow graduate students who have

provided me with mental stimulation and encouragement to push through.

iv"

PREFACE

Like many children growing up in the 1990s, I loved Disney’s animated films,

specifically the Disney Princesses. These characters were in some way a part of my

childhood. As I grew up, technology advanced, I was able to re-experience each of the

films repeatedly by VHS and later DVD viewing. These characters were core figures of

my childhood and have always held a special place in my heart. As the franchise has

expanded I have continued and will continue to support the brand. Through graduate

school my love for Disney evolved through research on the brand. This project allowed

me to take a special interest to an academic level and undertake research on a subject dear

to my heart. The gender principles the company imparts though their films in this

particular franchise interest me and the lack of research on recent releases pushed me to

add to the body of established research to encompass princesses from the its inception

through its current lineup.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………………. iii

PREFACE ……………………………………………………………………. iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………. 1

Background ……………………………………………………………. 3

Purpose of the Study ………………………………….………………. 8

Significance of the Study ……………………………………………. 11

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY ………..……. 18

Literature Review ……………………………………………………. 18

Gender and the Media …………………………………………………. 19

Representations of Gender in Disney Films …………………………… 21

Female Depictions in Traditional Disney Films ……………….…… 22

Female Depictions in Contemporary Disney Films ……………………… 24

Traditional Male Images ……………………………………………. 26

The New Man in Disney ……………………………………………. 27

Impact of Gender Stereotypes in Peer Interaction ………………………. 29

Methods …………………………………………..………………… 30

Screenshot Outline …………………………………..………………… 35

CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ……………………………. 40

Findings ……………………………………………………………. 40

Domestic Female: Traditional ………….…..……………………..………. 40

Domestic Female: Contemporary ………………………….…………. 45

Heroic Male: Traditional …………………………..…………………. 49

vi"

Heroic Male: Contemporary ……………………………..…….………. 52

Physical Appeal: Traditional ……………………………………………. 56

Physical Appeal: Contemporary ……………………….……………. 60

Damsel in Distress: Traditional …………….……….………………. 63

Damsel in Distress: Contemporary …………………………….………. 66

Color Cue ……………………………………………………………. 69

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION ………………………..……………………. 74

Limitations and Future Research ……………………………………. 81

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………. 83

CIRRICULUM VITAE …………………………………………………….. 88

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Visually-based representations of gender in the media — specifically in film and

television — have unequally portrayed the quantity and quality of male characters versus

female characters since the advent of modern forms of entertainment. Film in particular

has been male dominated just in terms of the number of lead characters who are men. The

development of lead female characters has been a slow process but has shown steady

progress in recent decades.

One common agent of criticism for gender stereotypes has been Disney’s

animated films. Previous research on animated films within the franchise has found the

existence of gender stereotypes. More recent releases provide additional avenues to

examine and compare gender portrayals from classic films with contemporary releases to

gage the changes over time. Hoerrner, in a 1996 study, noted that decades of research

concerning gender portrayals in Disney films has revealed that viewers consistently

consume “erroneous and demeaning depictions of women” (Hoerrner, 1996). Through

Disney’s films, viewers have encountered gender roles that align with societal

expectations, but it is not clear if the depictions in recent animated films have changed

along with the times and corresponding reforms in society. Researchers have explored the

quantity of female characters in their studies and to a lesser extent the types of

characteristics such depictions provide.

This thesis explored Disney animated films, both past and present, though a

thematic analysis and analyzed and measured gender stereotypes across the Disney

Princess brand chronically gaging the change in illustrations. The Disney Princess

franchise currently has 11 members, each the main protagonist of an animated film,

beginning with Snow White of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Cinderella

(1950), Aurora of Sleeping Beauty (1959), Ariel of The Little Mermaid (1989), Belle of

Beauty and the Beast (1991), Jasmine of Aladdin (1992), Pocahontas (1995), Mulan

(1998), Tiana of The Princess and the Frog (2009), Rapunzel of Tangled (2010), and

Merida of Brave (2012) as the latest addition. These female characters were grouped

together for the first time in the late 1990s by Andy Mooney and are comprised of both

princesses and heroines. However, not all princesses associated with the Disney brand are

included in the franchise.

This study focused on the central female and male character of four films: Snow

White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937); Cinderella (1950); The Princess and the Frog

(2009); and Tangled (2010). Through analysis, it first examined patterns of stereotypes in

the first category films of from 1937-1975. Second, it compared the repetitions of themes

and patterns found in the first set of films to those in the second set released from 1976-

2012. Such analysis compared past and present illustrations to gage marketing of gender

stereotypes and the change, or lack thereof, over the years. Lastly, it analyzed how color

is being used to reinforce or challenge gender stereotypes present in the films. This study

provides further research into Disney’s marketing of gender standards within their

Princess brand by identifying what earlier films depicted and comparing them to

illustrations of modern movies.

Background

Children have been exposed to images that illustrate gender stereotypes for

generations past and will continue to do so for generations to come. These images have

created and reinforced traditional gender roles and images and continue to do so. The

portrayal of gender stereotypes has been said to create gender role images and

expectations among the youth who view them. Through everyday readings, viewing and

interactions, children are learning, following and developing meaning (Baker-Sperry,

2007). Classic fairy tales once only available in print have been turned into colorful

illustrations and provide images to accompany the storyline.

While print media have traditionally led in depictions of men and women, visual

media have increasingly — especially in the later 20

century — dominated social

interpretations of gender roles (Gauntlett, 2002, p. 46). Two of the most popular

platforms of visual media for mass audiences are television and film, and by the mid-

1980s, there were more women in leading roles, but still there were twice as many men

on screen (Gauntlett, 2002, p. 47). These ratios for television extended across to film.

However, these two agents illustrated visually negative gender stereotypes and their

struggle to keep up with societal changes warranted cause for criticism.

As visual media continue to increase in popularity, the time spent viewing such

media increases as well. The American Medical Association has documented that

American children spend a large portion of their awake time viewing television (Giroux

& Pollock, 2010, pp. 2-3). During this time, the media entertains and educates. Young

children are highly susceptible to such learning because these are the developmental

years and the visual aspect of television and film helps impart two fold, visually and

verbally, cultural, social and gender standards.

Henry Giroux and Grace Pollock noted that Walt Disney thought of a child’s

mind as “a blank book,” and during their early years, much of their mental book is

written which will be the foundation for principles of the rest of their life following early

childhood (2010, p. 17). Recognizing that learning was not confined to the classroom one

can only question what social and gender standards Walt Disney aimed to impart onto

children through animated films as well as what current principles that the Disney

corporation is teaching children.

Gender stereotypes have been found to be present in a variety of children’s

programming since the inception of television, one most notable source has been

animated cartoons (Hoerrner, 1996). From the very beginning Disney animated films

have captured and captivated audiences. Children’s entertainment has been identified in

conjunction with animated films for many years. The 1937 release of Snow White and the

Seven Dwarfs by the Disney Corporation, has identified them as one of the main

providers of media in general and children’s entertainment specifically (Hoerrner, 1996).

Early Disney films contained female characters, as main protagonists, who were seen as

visual role models. Through these central female figures concerns arose, from both

parents and social scientist, about the values that these illustrations teach (Dundes, 2001).

Their popularity among children and adults has led a handful of researchers to assess

character portrayals within these films over the years (Bazzini, Curtain, Joslin, Martz, &

Regan, 2010).

Research in the 1970’s by Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz found explicit and implicit

messages in relation to societal power structures especially regarding gender in children’s

literature. The digital age of media has shifted children’s literature to a visual medium

onto the big screen and into the home. It has been proven that children learn in a more

persuasive manner through visual media such as video than in written form as the

traditional fairy tale story. Children’s entertainment has been dominated by the Disney

Corporations full-length animated films since the 1930’s and still serve as current visual

forms of age-old fairy tales. What was once the main form of children’s entertainment,

before the age of television and film, were transformed to the current visual media

platforms allowing them to continue to be popular and viewed today (Haddock, Lund,

Tanner, Towbin & Zimmerman, 2004).

Visual media over time has evolved from its traditional form of print most

notably, the fairy tale, which “is one of the longest existing genres of children’s

literature” (Hurley, 2005). It has served as a staple of childhood entertainment and

education since its written form. Initial stories served as teaching aids through the main

moral of the story. The Disney Corporation is the “Stories R Us” for children and is used

for teaching about social and cultural standards much like the traditional fairy tale (Ward,

2002, p. 1). As these stories were transformed into visual illustrations, such messages

were often lost and the notion of innocence and enchantment became the most important

factors or so it seemed.

“Fairy tales are the first stories we hear, and though they are meant to enchant and

entertain, they also offer us a means of addressing psychological conflicts” (Cashdan,

1999, p. ix) and often impart cultural, social and gendered principles. Such psychological

conflicts provided the foundation and were an important aspect of the fairy tale, the moral

of the story. By shifting attention off the story’s moral, Disney was able to eliminate

some of the psychological conflicts present in written form, which often served as a

source of concern among parents. The aural nature of storytelling leaves the visual

element to the imagination of the person listening, which can be altered, based off their

personal experiences and often the fairy tale story is deemed one-dimensional because of

this flaw.

An evolution of media to a visual platform brought change across the generation

and not just the medium. The advancement of modern media through television in

America during the 1920s created a medium to reach a mass audience and offered the

element of visual appeal paired with a sound component. This advancement also affected

films, which were silent until 1927, creating a double threat to a once one-dimensional

genre. Through indication of behaviors, which are easier to illustrate in visual form,

media began to depict a wide variety of gendered actions both in television and films.

Specifically for the visual transformation of the fairy tale to animated films, the Disney

Corporation redirected the focus on visual aspects, such as the look of characters and

their concrete actions, two major areas that communicate gender standards. In contrast to

the print form, visual illustrations were able to benefit significantly from aural elements

and did so through the incorporation of music. The musical element created another

means of entertainment and reinforcement. Pairing such illustrations with the charming

element of music has the ability to appeal to and communicate gender standards to two

senses, sight, and hearing, at the same time creating higher probability of transmission

and retention of principles illustrated.

As the Disney Corporation began to conquer the realm of animation with original

creations and short films as early as the 1930s, they took a step back in time and a step

forward in the animated history, producing in 1937 the first full-length animated film,

which was based off a fairy tale, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This monumental

moment for children’s media reinvented the traditional fairy tale by providing a new

platform to express age-old customs and “changed the public’s view of fairy tales

forever” (Cashdan, 1999, p. 40).

Through cinema, Disney has reclaimed and redeveloped the fairy tale. “Most

vivid memories of fairy tales come by way of Walt Disney” (Cashdan, 1999, p. 1) as they

have dominated the world of children’s entertainment. The alteration of such tales to suite

the target audience, young impressionable children, and please their parents created a

unique combination of mixing traditional with contemporary, and has continued to be a

pattern with recent releases of the twenty-first century and beyond.

Initial depictions, dating back to the 1930s, illustrated women in traditional roles

that were acceptable of the culture and society of the time. Over the course of several

decades however, times have changed as have social and domestic conditions, but the

illustrations are still present. “Fairy tales written during the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries were intended to teach girls and young women how to become domesticated,

respectable, and attractive” (Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz, 2003).

The emergence of technology created visual depictions of traditional gender roles

aimed at young children who are most susceptible to absorption of such stereotypes

without even being aware of the underlying nature of the content. The replicated roles of

a forgotten time have always created a concern in current times and the extent to which

these illustrations mentally imbed themselves into the youth of today has been a concern

of many researchers. However, before you can measure the degree to which such

illustrations are affecting the audience you must first analyze and identify the existence of

such principles.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine gender role portrayals and stereotyping

surrounding the collection of Disney Princess films including the most recent additions

that have not yet been analyzed. “When a conglomerate like Disney dominates such a

vast stretch of popular culture, it can define and even dictate basic assumptions about

everyday life and social relationships” (Ward, 2002, p. 131). The Disney Princess

franchise provided such a platform for children entertainment and education.

Disney Corporation has various sub-brands within the company most notably the

Disney Princess franchise. The franchise is comprised of both Disney princesses and

heroines. Originally founded with nine members, Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel,

Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Mulan and Tinkerbell, the brand later removed Tinkerbell

and created a separate Disney Fairies franchise. The original members of the brand either

had a royal bloodline, married into royalty or embodied princess like qualities through

inner values. Since its foundation three additional princesses have been coronated into the

franchise, Tiana, Rapunzel, and Merida. Two additional princesses, Elsa and Ana of

Frozen, are expected to be coronated into the franchise although no date has been

determined as of 2014.

Disney films inspire at least as much cultural authority and legitimacy for

teaching specific roles, values, and ideals than more traditional sites of learning, such as

public schools, religious institutions, and the family (Giroux, 1994). Through the movies

and merchandise, the brand has reached and conquered their target audience. Digital

animation created colorful illustrations for classic childhood stories that captivated young

children’s minds. The notion that the Disney Princess franchise is targeted at young girls

is itself a gender stereotype. However, the reasoning behind the brand and its name were

not within the scope of this study; rather, whether what principles they are intentionally

or inadvertently marketing in regards to gender roles and stereotypes. “Because Disney

aims its films particularly at children, additional issues are involved in its persuasive

role” (Ward, 2002, p. 4).

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, fairy tales portrayed women

characters that were socially acceptable for the period and emphasized qualities of

domestic traits, beauty, and pleasant demeanor, which were valuable assets to women of

that time. Fairy tales during those times were “intended to teach boys and girls

appropriate gendered values and attitudes” (Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz, 2003).

These dated elements in fairy tales did in fact remain present in Snow White and

the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Cinderella (1950), and Sleeping Beauty (1959), reflecting

similar social norms in the United States at the time. However, World War II brought

women into the work force in great numbers. Their arrival created a realization of the

capabilities and diversity of females as equals to their male counterparts and a social

change began to take place. The return of men home from the war and back into the

workforce was met with hesitation from some women who felt that their new place was

in the workforce and not in the home. The dynamics of the country had started to change

to align with modern customs. Women continued to work in masculine occupations

instead of the home sector, creating a new era.

Just like post-World War II, as society continually evolves, established corporate

structures have kept their customary and often outdated approaches. Although technology

has advanced the principles and foundation, which most major corporations were built

on, have remained, and stood the test of time. As sales and box office success continues

to increase, there seems to be little or no need for adjustment. The Disney Princess

franchise, specifically their animated films, is an applicable product for which analysis is

often suggested due to their target audience, young impressionable children, and the

dated period from which the original, but still readily available, films were produced.

During the same time as World War II, there was the commencement of animated

moving images that ushered in a new era of children’s entertainment. “Film is a powerful

storyteller; employing narrative, visuals, and music enhances it power to communicate”

(Ward, 2002, p. 5), this added with modern technology provides Disney with essential

tools to continue to dominate children’s media. The addition of color technology

revolutionized children’s entertainment. No more were illustrations boring and dull black,

whites and greys but an array of wonderful colors that were able to capture and captivate

the audience. As visual media expanded with television and film in the realm of

technology, access to this medium became a common feature socially and culturally and

the main means of entertainment globally. Over the years, the Disney brand has

continued to gain financial achievements. “In 2008, despite the economic recession,

Disney had one of its most profitable years on record, generating $37.8 billion in sales”

(Giroux & Pollock, 2010, p. 19). Such success is evident in other brands across the

company however, the Disney Princess franchise is one the most notable and successful

for it is the “leading lifestyle brand for six-to nine-year-old girls” (Giroux & Pollock,

2010, p. 19).

The Disney Corporation has expanded into several sub-brands and these

franchises are growing at enormous rates. Merchandise for the Disney Princess brand

introduce classic princesses to a contemporary audience. However, the animated films,

that visually illustrate principles and values, are the most notable features of the

franchise. Although, research has analyzed gender portrayal in the franchise, few

researchers have focused on gender stereotyping in the latest additions to the brand.

Through examination of recent films, this study aimed to add further information to the

body of literature on the themes and patters present to determine if contemporary releases

have evolved from the dated classic depictions.

Significance of the Study

Mass media researchers have been interested in gender portrayals in Disney’s

animated films since the late twentieth century. The idea that children learn from media is

no longer just a thought but an extensive range of theories that has been supported over

the years by research but what consistent messages are being conveyed is the main

concern. Possible effects of the illustrations and the imitation of such gendered images

have warranted extensive research in this area and the Disney brand widespread

popularity created avenues to explore such questions. “The popularity of Disney

animated films and the growth in their production and releases affirm Disney animated

films as significant communicators in the public sphere that beg to be examined more

closely” (Ward, 2002, p. 5).

The established theoretical background has examined past Disney films and

created a foundation for evolving the research into contemporary illustrations to gauge

the progression and or need for change with such depictions. Disney films have been an

integral part of American culture for 70 years, with scores of animated movies aimed

specifically at young children and reinforcing gender roles and stereotypes. Such classics

are well known to children across the world as a result of availability (Callister,

Magoffin, Moore, & Robinson, 2007), and new releases are becoming equally as popular.

Past Disney films may be dated in their depictions of social norms from the 1930s, 40s,

and 50s, but their presence in popular culture has remained strong due to re-releases of

otherwise vaulted movies, along with anniversary editions that continue to dominate the

world of children’s animation.

The “Disney baby” is a term coined by David Forgacs and is defined as those

born after 1925 and who “were taken as a child to see Disney films, read Disney comics,

and owned some Disney merchandise” (Forgacs, 2008). They grew into Disney adults

raising another generation of Disney babies. This generation passage has reinforced the

gender images depicted though the Disney brand across generations. Disney has become

an empire of popular culture and a teaching medium for many children today like those

of the past. The repeated viewing over the years has created and strengthened the

absorption of gender images depicted. One theory on the strengths of gender messages in

Disney films is the Social Cognitive Theory which suggests that children are more likely

to imitate a characters behavior when repeatedly exposed (Coyne et al., 2013) another is

the pro-social nature of character behaviors in the films.

“Social Cognitive Theory posits that a character’s behavior is more likely to be

imitated if exposure is repeated” (Coyne et al., 2013). Repetitive viewing offered by

home video, as available with Disney movies, creates gender role reinforcement. In

addition to repeat viewing, factors such as situation and motivation of characters, which

could influence how actions are perceived, may affect perceptions. These elements

appear more frequent in visual form that in written. “Higher levels of exposure to

gendered messages are likely associated with stronger effects on children’s gender

socialization,” concluded Collier-Meek and colleagues (2011).

Disney Princesses’ popularity increases with each release or re-release, and also

exposes age-old gender roles or reinforces gender stereotypes with each release. Gender

stereotyping has created gender perceptions for young children and they adapt these

illustrations and utilize them in day-to-day routines. Research has established that pro-

social behaviors vary between genders and such factors can determined what is

interpreted and by whom. Repeated exposure provides a child with a greater chance of

acknowledging and remembering such behavior depictions increasing the likelihood of

imitation. Coyne and colleagues defined pro-social behavior in a study that examined the

multidimensionality of such behavior in Disney films as “any voluntary behavior meant

to benefit another” (2013). They found that Disney films are abundant in pro-social

nature and contain on average one pro-social behavior per minute (Coyne et al., 2013).

The perception of such illustrations on young children continues to reiterate illustrations

specifically traditional gender stereotypes, especially with the Disney Princesses brand.

These depictions have created categories of acceptable media entertainment and have

separated animated entertainment into gender categories seen most notably among the

Disney Princess movie brand.

Scholarship has not however explored every facet of media production, leaving

analysis of color representations in characters outfits an open field for research, an area of

study especially ripe with animated films because of the highly stylized frames that

convey particular messages. Likewise, children may be the most highly influenced

audience members of media, liable to gender expectations expressed in cartoons. Media

availability has increased over the years and is a part of daily life for most children,

especially those living in America. The advancement of technology has increased the rate

to which children are exposed to media and has made it readily available on a continual

basis. Such access has made media easily obtainable and increased the viewing of mass

media in visual forms. These visual depictions capture the audience, especially young

children, and draw them into a world of fantasy or fantasy mixed with reality to make it

appear real. The latter can be confusing for youth who cannot distinguish between the

two and take the illustrations at face value. Perceptions of such depictions could be

misinterpreted and then imitated incorrectly in their behavior and actions. These

replicated actions also aid in setting societal and cultural standards to which they will

model their lives after. Such depictions have affected many areas including peer

interaction and gender role expectations and portrayal and created functions of doing boy

and doing girl.

Most gender attributes are associated with a specific color from birth. These

colors that reflect gender identity create gender stereotypes. Previous research has found

that “color plays an important role in children’s emergent gender stereotyping” (Callister

et al., 2007) and carries through to other aspects of their lives. It has been suggested by

prior research that children search for gender related signs and color associations are an

important factor for such indications. Their relatability creates a more likable illustration.

Understanding how children make these color choices is an important aspect to

understanding gender stereotypes in other areas. Coloring books that feature Disney

princesses are generally among top-sellers for girls (Karniol, 2011). These illustrations

are then reinforced though their childhood in the form of animated features most notably

Disney movies adding another dimension to the gender stereotype portal.

Stereotypes that have been around for centuries are now visually depicted in

current media though Disney films. Stuart Hall defined a representation as the meaning of

something said or depicted (1997, p. 16). Culture allows representations to find support

within a specific group. Stereotypes are constructed off of social representations and

have shared beliefs about the attributes of a group (Schaller, 1996). These representations

originate from one belief, which are then shared and agreed upon with others, often

within a culture, and communicated through media. Starting in the mind of an individual,

the adaptive nature of the stereotype is its ability to replicate itself in the minds of others

(Schaller, 1996). By imbedding itself into the minds of those with whom they are created

by and communicated with stereotypes construct inclusive categories of specific groups.

As culture creates stereotypes the media often reinforces them visually. Repeated

exposure allows a higher possibility of a representation being imitated as suggested by

the Social Cognitive Theory.

These illustrations may not be current with the era but are still available and

viewed by the youth of today. “Children’s programming continues to feature primarily

males characters designed to appeal to a male-viewing audience” (Green & Oliver, 2001).

However, the Disney Princess franchise is dedicated to featuring female characters but

still it is not the magnitude of female characters but rather the standards such characters

are illustrating to the viewing audience. The authors noted that often characters are

illustrated, both male and female, in stereotypical manners surrounding their role,

demeanor, and emotions. The visual nature of these depictions engrosses the audience

and creates a connection, which is often admired and imitated. Such imitations are then

carried over into everyday life recreating and reinforcing gender roles and stereotypes.

These features play a significant part of in understanding and taking action against such

gender stereotypes and their effects on children.

“Disney’s image of itself as an icon of US culture is consistently reinforced

through the penetration of the Disney Empire into every aspect of social life” (Giroux,

1994). “This “world view” of gender stereotypes fed to children in television

programming makes it easy for them to accept stereotypes in reality as well” (Hoerrner,

1996). It is these illustrations that are one of the most effective learning tools for

American children (Gillam & Wooden, 2008) making the real instructors for children

media outlets and not schoolteachers.

The thesis suggests that female depictions in Disney films have stayed one-

dimensional, as male depictions have evolved substantially. “Perhaps Cinderella best

illustrates the Disney pattern of subjugating and stifling heroines’ voices and shelf-hood”

(Henke, et al., 1996), while Tiana best illustrates the new age heroine of the twenty-first

century. But be it traditional gender image or new age the illustrations revert back to

domestic skills and the ideal image as beauty as a common moderating factor and a main

stereotype for female characters because in the end beauty always prevails or so we are

being taught this by Disney stereotypes.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY

A significant amount of recent research in the social sciences has focused on the

media effects on gender-related behaviors. More specifically, media scholars have paid

particular attention to the role the films of the Disney Corporation have played in shaping

gender perceptions among children. Much of this research utilized content analysis as the

primary method for examination. Research on the Disney Princess franchise specifically

has found content analysis as well as thematic analysis useful in analyzing a number of

factors present in the brand.

Literature Review

The following literature review describes studies that have used mostly content

analysis and a thematic analysis while examining Disney brands. A study by Callister and

colleagues in Journal of Aging Studies in 2007 concluded that children linked gender to

illustrations as a greater sign over color suggesting “color is a less important cue for

children when it conflicts with other gender-linked cues” (Karniol, 2011). From the

drawings, the data conclude, “children of each gender used a greater variety of color for

the figure stereotypically associated with their own gender” (Karniol, 2011). Collier-

Meek and colleagues explored the theories of the constructivist approach and cultivation

theory in a content analysis of Disney gender role portrayal. “Both suggest there may be

an effect of viewing gendered stereotypes upon children” (Collier-Meek, Descartes &

England, 2011). Martin and colleagues in a 2002 article in Psychological Bulletin

proposed the constructivist approach that suggests that children beliefs about the world

are developed based off their interpretations, observations and experiences. “Cultivation

theory posits that exposure to television content helps develop concepts regarding social

behavior and norms” (Collier-Meek et al., 2011). Hoerrner also cited it “as helpful as it

explains how exposure to visual media skews children’s perception of the world towards

the unrealistic mediated world they see on the screen” (Hoerrner, 1996).

Gender and the Media

Previous research focusing on gender representations in the media has often

studied the effects of television viewing on the behavior and development of children

(Frueh & McGhee, 1980). A 1980 study measuring viewing patterns on 64 French

children ranging from first to seventh grade in connection with gender-role stereotypes

was conducted. The data conducted by Frueh and McGhee concluded, “heavy television

viewing may contribute significantly to children’s acquisition of stereotypic perceptions

of behavior and psychological characteristics associated with males and females” (1980).

The study derived through previous research done during the 1970s from social scientist

that established that gender role stereotypes were grouped into six areas.

(1) Females who tended to be much younger than males, and were more likely to

be depicted either as being married or about to be married;

(2) Females who were most likely to be cast in a leading role when some family

or romantic interest was central to the plot;

(3) Males who were more likely to be cast in serious roles, while females were

more likely to be cast in comic or light roles;

(4) Males who were most likely to initiate violence, while white females were

most likely to be victims;

(5) Females who were less likely to get away with violence, and when they did,

they demonstrated it;

(6) Females who tended to be depicted as more attractive, happier, warmer, more

sociable, fairer, more peaceful, and more useful, while males tended to be

represented as smarter, more rational, more powerful, more stable, and more

tolerant (Frueh & McGhee, 1980).

Their study of Kindergarten through Sixth Grade children concluded that children who

spend more time watching television exhibited greater stereotypic perceptions in gender

categories than those who spend less time watching television (Frueh & McGee, 1980).

Since the 1980 examination done by Frueh and McGhee, there has been a

continued interest in children, television and gender roles. In 1990, Nancy Signorielli

examined images depicting gender roles on television and the impact of these images

through a literary review of past research. Stating television as an avenue for learning she

believed that its ability to share stories visually was a vital feature because it was capable

of teaching different characterizes and behaviors to mass audiences. Through her

observations, she noted that male characters outnumbered female characters three to one.

Also, she observed that women were seen less often than men, and when they did appear,

they were usually younger and also more attractive (Signorielli, 1990). Relating her

finding to the effects they have on children perceptions in real life, she concluded that

children learn characteristics and which genders are attached to such characteristics

because of television exposure.

Representations of Gender in Disney Films

Haddock and colleagues found in a 2004 study that the Disney Corporation is a

major contributor to the general genre of children’s media (Haddock et al., 2004) due to

the availability of such content in video form, which allows it to be purchased and viewed

repeatedly. Additionally, it was suggested by Collier-Meek and colleagues in study

published in 2011 that children learn in a more persuasive manner through visual media

such as video than in written form. “Higher levels of exposure to television have been

correlated with more traditional ideas of gender roles” (2011).

“The assertion that the media serve as vehicles of women’s subordination is a

common element among theories of gender and gender socialization” (Baker-Sperry,

2007). In a content analysis study assessing Disney gender roles as illustrated via Disney

princesses and male characters romantically linked evidence, suggest that gender

stereotypes in characters have an impact on children and their thoughts of gender norms.

The study done by Collier-Meek and colleagues provided a “systematic quantitative

comparison of the main characters attributes, actions, and outcomes in a thematically

unified, highly popular grouping of Disney films” (2011). They hypothesized that gender

roles were more clearly defined in earlier movies and princes would display more

masculine characteristics and princesses more feminine. Also, they noted the rescue was

traditionally a masculine role to be performed by a prince. Lastly, they predicted that the

roles would switch over time and the stereotypical illustrations would give way to less

gender illustrated actions. Results indicated on average masculine characteristic displayed

were higher for the princes than the princesses and feminine characteristics were higher

for the princesses than for the princes. Further analysis concluded that princesses were

rescued more than they performed rescues. In contrast, princes characters performed

rescues and were rescued the same amount of times. However, although prince’s results

were androgynous there was a significance factor of the rescues performed by them,

which were often climactic, and no princess was able to perform a final rescue without

the assistance of a prince.

Female Depictions in Traditional Disney Films

Although children’s programming features primarily male characters who appeal

to a male-viewing audience (Green & Oliver, 2001), Disney princesses have made

progress in the quantity of depictions within the world of animated entertainment. In a

2008 study on the images of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation in Disney animated

films, Haddock and colleagues noted two key traits in a sample of 15 Disney movies:

including domestic work and ideal image of beauty, as a common illustration of female

characters.

Gender stereotypes and behaviors illustrations are very common in Disney culture

and their depictions have become more intricate over the years especially those of female

characters. A review of a previous study, on Gender Role Portrayal and the Disney

Princess, of 16 Disney films revealed that the presented gendered images in the sample

were not current with societal developments in gender equality.

The prevalence of domestic work is an important theme in Disney Princess

movies, noted Collier-Meek, and a substantial change incorporated by Disney over time

was the discontinuation of domestic work as a symbol of femininity (Collier-Meek et al.,

2011). Dating back to 1937, when the first animated Disney movie premiered, gender

portrayals were present and helped to identify and reinforce traditional gender

expectations from the very beginning with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Traditional

Disney movies such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella highlight

domestic work and the acceptance of the female characters to perform such tasks. A

content analysis by Collier-Meek and colleagues documented gender portrayals by

measuring the stereotypical masculine and feminine characteristics of skills and roles

performed in these two movies. The study found that most recent films included women

with stronger roles than Disney’s previous characters.

The feminine beauty ideal and the representation of the ideal in fairy tales has

been a continued theme of many Disney movies especially among the Disney Princess

Franchise. Its portrayal and maintenance in children’s literature has spanned 150-year

period. This ideal was a “socially constructed notion that physical attractiveness is one of

women’s most important assets, and something all women should strive to achieve and

maintain” (Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz, 2003). Women’s beauty is glorified in which

beauty, for beauty’s sake, plays a major role in the story in many early Disney movies

(Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz, 2003).

Previous research published in the Journal of Applied Social Psychology in 2010

has “found that the attractiveness of a character was strongly and positively correlated

with how morally good that character was portrayed” (Bazzini et al., 2010). The study

conducted a content analysis on a sample of 21 Disney films. It examined Disney films

role in regards to gender stereotyping specifically for a source of social information in

regards to beauty and positive attributes. The data gathered concluded that some positive

changes have occurred over the years but the overall illustrations continue to represent a

narrow and stereotypical imagery of gender. Bazzini found that central characters were

portrayed more favorably and were generally rated as more physically attractive than

were secondary characters (Bazzini et al., 2010). The study noted that images depicted

coincide with traditional gender roles and stereotypes and were exemplified to highlight

their feminine characteristics and roles. These traits include the idea of beauty, which has

been a prominent characteristic depicted in many popular Disney films. The data

supported the evidence that suggests that the female image associated with beauty is

young, slender, and attractive and beauty is more important than brains. Such gender

illustrations are present in many Disney films and are a major avenue from which

children draw their perceptions.

Female Depictions in Contemporary Disney Films

Recent Disney films, which in some cases are not only animated, continue to

retell popular fairy tales often involve women who differ from their earlier counterparts

in ingenuity, activity, and independence but not physical attractiveness (Baker-Sperry &

Grauerholz, 2003). In a 2001 content analysis examining twenty-first century Disney

movies, Dunes noted, “Pocahontas was applauded because of the metamorphosis of the

usual docile Disney heroine into an adventurous young woman who stands up for her

beliefs” (Dundes, 2001). The author also noted that her character was loyal to her

heritage and did not follow the dreamy man but rather upheld her civic responsibility to

her people. However, she was still portrayed as beautiful as John Smith fell instantly in

love with her upon first sight. Through the data collected, the author concluded that

Pocahontas showed vast improvement over such protagonists as Snow White, Cinderella,

and Sleeping Beauty; however, lingering sex stereotypes remained (Dundes, 2001).

The 2009 Disney movie The Princess and the Frog introduced the first African-

American female princess and protagonist and has been thought to be contemporary in

characteristic traits for the period in which the film was released. Fisher and Silber had

concluded previously that many African American girls had been taught by the examples

of their mothers to become independent, self-supporting, and independent of men (Fisher

& Silber, 2000). A content analysis conducted by Collier-Meek and colleagues

examining nine Disney Princess movies including the contemporary films Pocahontas

(1995), Mulan (1998), and The Princess and the Frog (2009) concluded that “the three

most recent movies had princesses who displayed more masculine than feminine

characteristics” (2011). In The Princess and the Frog, the princess was career-oriented,

initially preventing her from socializing and pursuing romantic opportunities (Collier-

Meek et al., 2011), a growing empowerment of Disney heroines reflected in shifting

depictions of their intimate relationships (Henke, Smith and Zimmerman-Umble, 1996).

However, love is still the central element of the storyline. These depictions leave young

girls believing that someday their prince will come and rescue them from the job they

hate, their mothers house, or any other situation where they are not cheerful to live their

happily ever after. Such depictions create false illusions for young children teaching them

that love happens at first sight and looks is all one has to go off to be happily ever after.

However, illustrations that are more recent have broken the bounds of gender stereotypes

and traditional roles, but they still confirm the notion that good and beautiful are

synonymous.

Generally, studies on gendered stereotypes in Disney films have concluded that

the Princess line reinforces classic depictions of femininity, but their depiction has

become more complex over the years, reflecting changing gender roles and expectations

in American society (Collier-Meek et al., 2011). This raises the concern of whether or not

the Disney Corporation has continued this evolution of have they reverted to the dated

behaviors and if so what behaviors do they highlight.

Traditional Male Images

Data collected by researchers has suggested that men in Disney films have

primarily used physical means to express their emotions. Men are also more likely to

respond to an emotional situation with physical and sometimes violent behavior

(Haddock et al., 2004). Consequently, as Giroux in 1994 found, the construction of

gender identity for girls and women has represented “one of the most controversial issues

in Disney’s animated films” (Giroux, 1994). Female characters were subordinate to males

and defined by their interactions and relations with men.

With the emergence of Disney films Walt Disney revitalized numerous classical

tales on film with stereotypical and denigrating portraits of females (Downey, 1996). The

tales were made into movies with a conventional language style grounded in a patriarchal

certainty that give voice to male characters and ostracized females in preservation of the

male-controlled society (Downey, 1996).

In a 2004 thematic analysis published in Journal of Feminist Family Therapy,

Haddock and colleagues concluded that some positive changes have occurred over the

years, but the overall illusions continue to represent narrow imagery of gender and those

depicted coincide with traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Men maintain the image

of being physically forceful and non-expressive and women have been demonstrated

dependent, occupied with domestic responsibilities, and extra emphasis on their physical

attributes with little acknowledgement of their intellectual abilities (Haddock et al.,

2004). These conclusions were drawn from a sample of 26 full-length animated Disney

films, chosen based on their inclusion in the category of Disney Classics, as well as

recent movies (Haddock et al., 2004).

The traditional Disney movie depicts males in masculine roles of king and prince,

having obvious social power, while women struggle to attain or maintain status on their

own (Baker-Sperry, 2007). These illustrations create viewpoints of gender roles for

children at a young age that they often carry well into adulthood. The creation of

stereotypes dictates their interactions with the opposite sex and their expectations in

many aspects of their life.

The New Man in Disney

Henry Giroux noted in Animating Youth: The Disneyfication of Children’s

Culture, 1994 that “Jack Zipes, a leading theorist on fairy tales, claims that Disney’s

animated films celebrate a masculine type of power” (39). Noting that traditional

characters were depicted as physically attractive it acknowledges its main trait is often

physical strength and or bravery. These characters often aid in rescuing or saving a

character, often a princess from evil forces. This brave act wins and seals their fate

instantly making them the perfect suitor. Courage and bravery mixed with good looks

create a happily ever after on screen, but this is often not the case in real life. Valor is

often an attribute associated with the profession of fire fighter, police officer, and solider

but these illustrations are no consistent with animated illustrations. These illustrations

create false images and illusions, which children see and then digest, making them

vulnerable to such depictions.

Traditional male depictions in major supporting roles of the female protagonist

were linked with romantic involvement with the lead female character. For many years,

these illustrations were the extent of male characters in animated Disney movies with

little variation until their partnership with Pixar. The relationship created the new male of

Disney. The merger created a new model of masculinity. Pixar’s focus has been the male

protagonist and the story lines center on and around that particular character (Gillam &

Wooden, 2008). “Unlike many of the princesses, who remain relatively static even

through their own adventures, these male leads are actual protagonists; their characters

develop and change over the course of the film, rendering the plot” (Gillam & Wooden,

2008). We see these illustrations in Toy Story, Cars and The Incredibles. This alpha

male’s model helps create gender lines and reinforce traditional stereotypes with breaking

barriers with the femininity to the male characters as not seen before.

In a quantitative comparison of main characters in a thematic grouping of Disney

films, Collier-Meek and colleagues (2011) hypothesized that gender roles would be

clearly defined in earlier movies and princes would display more masculine

characteristics and princesses more feminine. Also, they noted the rescue would be

traditionally a masculine role to be performed by the prince. Lastly, they predicted that

the roles would switch over time and the stereotypical illustrations would give way to less

gender illustrated actions. The study concluded that on average masculine characteristics

displayed were higher for the princes than the princesses and feminine characteristics

were higher for the princesses than the princes. Further analysis concluded that princesses

were rescued more than they performed rescues. However, princes characters performed

rescues and were rescued the same amount of times. Although the princes’ results were

androgynous, they were significant in the type of rescues they in which they participated

and assisted. The princes normally performed solo rescues, majority climactic, and they

assisted in many others, as no princess was able to do a final rescue without the

assistance of a prince.

Impact of Gender Stereotypes on Peer Interaction

Wohlwend’s analysis of behavioral characteristics in many Disney films observed

storylines that communicate idealized ways of “doing boy” or “doing girl,” (Wohlwend,

2011), meaning, these films have been viewed by a large quantity of American children

and are a continuous medium from which they draw gender perceptions. The popularity

of such illustrations has been reiterated though literature most often in a classroom setting

and the same stereotypes depicted in the films are also present within the text. “Children

rely heavily on traditional normative structures to make sense of the world, and they have

often accepted gendered expectations as truth” (Baker-Sperry, 2007). These replications

have allowed them to create perspectives on gender roles.

Former studies have “showed that children demonstrate their ability to adhere to

dominate gender identities by regulating each other’s practices” (Wohlwend, 2011). Also,

it has been proven that “children often reject non-sexist stories of brave princesses and

gentle princes, sometimes responding with tears and outrage” (Wohlwend, 2011). This

hypothesis was studied by the author measuring the ability of children to shy away from

such gender stereotypes and norms and play gender-reversed role. The study determined

that kindergarten boys broke heterosexual expectations by merely playing with hyper-

feminine characters, specifically Disney Princess dolls. However, the male children who

played with female dolls did so in an abrasive manner that illustrated a sense of

masculinity. They also transformed traditional qualities of the characters to suite their

masculine point of view, such as tuning the fairy godmother scary. Also, boys who

engaged in the non-traditional gender play excluded females from participation. The

study concluded that children who illustrate Disney characters, as depicted in films they

exemplify, “anticipated identities and gendered character roles” (Wohlwend, 2011) in

some form and bend them to meet their specific needs for comfort.

Methods

This study utilized thematic analysis to record and analyze gender stereotyping in

Disney Princess franchise specifically within their animated films. Thematic analysis is a

qualitative research method that allows the researcher to develop meanings from patterns

identified. Qualitative analysis encompasses a wide range of methods and is used,

especially in media examination, for recording, categorizing, and interpreting individual

components of data in a non-numerical format. This style of analysis integrates the

researcher, who plays a key component as both collector and translator of data. The

flexibility of data collection and analysis has allowed this method of qualitative analysis

to be popular among researchers. As translator, the interpretation is constructed from

personal values and factors such as “educational, socio-economic, cultural and moral

backgrounds” (Cunningham, 2014).

“There is a considerable overlap among available qualitative approaches in terms

of methods, procedures, and techniques”(Vaismoradi, Turuhen & Bondas, 2013). Content

analysis and thematic analysis are two methods that are similar and widely used in the

examination of media data. Content analysis has been proven beneficial in previous

studies analyzing gender roles in visual media, its research provided the foundation for

the current study. Jim Macnamara in Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, outlined the

use and benefits of content analysis and recognized the methodology as the best research

technique to systematically and objectively examine films. Unlike content analysis, this

study aims to identify patterns within the themes of the data and therefore utilized

thematic analysis.

An idea or assumption provides the foundation for qualitative research, especially

thematic analysis, and from those assumptions data is gathered and analyzed to create

patterns of themes. Braun & Clarke defined thematic analysis as “a method for

identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (2006). This specific

technique of qualitative analysis was selected for the observational ability it provides to

examine and interpret various categories of media and form specific patterns from

themes. Its ability to “move beyond counting explicit words or phrases and focus on

identifying and describing both implicit and explicit ideas within the data, that is,

themes” is the power of thematic analysis on this particular study (Guest, MacQueen &

Namey, 2012).

This methodology can be conducted in two ways inductive or deductive. Through

inductive data collection the researcher analyzes the data and from what was gathered

derives themes. With deductive data collection the researcher has specific themes that

they are looking, which is often based off of pervious research. As there has been much

research done on the Disney Princess franchise in regards to gender roles and stereotypes

the data collection selected for this thesis was deductive.

By analyzing gender portrayals across the Disney Princess franchise this study

aimed to uncover patterns chronologically in the themes and subcategories of each theme

regarding gender stereotyping in the brand. In order to do so the primary element being

analyzed is character actions and behaviors via screenshots. Through the main female and

male character, themes have been chosen to represent traditional masculine and feminine

stereotypes. They focus on the following attributes: domestic female; heroic male;

physical appeal; and damsel in distress. These themes examined specific actions,

behaviors, and objects associated with subcategories to gather data and identify patterns

of gender role portrayal and gender stereotyping.

Primary sources were selected from the entire collection of original animated-

films in the Disney Princess franchise, 11 movies. From this compilation a sample of

films was generated. For inclusion in the sample all films had to be: 1) based off a fairy

tale; 2) the main female protagonist had to be born a human, however, she did not have to

remain human throughout the entire movie; 3) the main female protagonist had to present

herself as a female for majority (at least 75%) of the movie; 4) no more than two

selections from the same decade, with at least two years between releases for films in the

same decade beginning with the earliest movie of the decade.

The qualifications yielded six films Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937),

Cinderella (1950), Sleeping Beauty (1959), Beauty and the Beast (1991), The Princess

and the Frog (2009), and Tangled (2010). From the six films the two earliest (Snow

White and Cinderella) as well as the two most recent (The Princess and the Frog and

Tangled) were chosen to be analyzed in this study for a clear distinction between

Disney’s early representations and it’s more recent ones. (For the purposes of this study,

Sleeping Beauty and Beauty and the Beast were considered films that did not demonstrate

a clear contemporary versus past distinction).

Films were split into two categories: 1) Traditional (1937-1989); and 2)

Contemporary (1990-present), with two movies for each group. Each Disney movie

selected was reflected in the Disney Princess franchise at the time this study was

conducted and had merchandise available for purchase on the Disney store website,

which is linked to the Disney Princess franchise website. Additionally, VHS, DVD, and

BlueRay release have been available for each of the films selected. For three of the four

films included in the sample, with the exception of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,

DVD and BlueRay disk were currently available for purchase on the Disney Store

website that is linked to the Disney Princess franchise website as well.

Previous research identified several themes and codes of gender stereotyping.

From those this study, which used deductive data analysis, developed themes to analyze

the data. Some of the subcategories operational definitions were developed from a

previous study on gender roles with Disney Princesses, England et al. (2011) constructed

from Thompson and Zerbinos 1995 study. Not all attributes coded in the previous study

were replicated for subcategories in the current study due to the specific objective of

research for this study. In addition to the attributes, England et al. examined the climatic

rescue scene to measure androgyny among characters as a main indicator of gender

stereotyping, however characteristics to measure these elements were not included in this

study as it is only concerned with identifying specific gender stereotypes in the films in

correlation to the five specific themes. The operational definitions for each subcategory

created measures for analysis. These measures provided validity to the study by

identifying the classifications that the data would be analyzed ensuring it stayed within

the scope of the study.

Suggestive dress was defined in a 1988 article by Lawrence Soley and Leonard

Reid regarding clothing in magazine ads. The authors categorized clothing in four

sections: 1] demurely dressed; [2] suggestively dressed; [3] partially clad; and [4] nude.

Of these four categories suggestively dressed, which was the closest to the subcategory

“sexually suggestive attire,” was defined as including “mini-skirts, "short-shorts,

"muscle" shirts, full-length lingerie (unless "see-through" that exposed cleavage or

chests), and "hiked" skirts that exposed thighs” (Soley & Reid, 1988).

Researcher Tom Reichert measured sexual attractiveness in magazine

advertisements through which the “respondents’ perceptions of the sexual attractiveness

of the cover person was assessed with two items (sexy/not sexy; sexually

desirable/sexually undesirable)” (2008). However, due to the intended audience of the

films and the medium through which they are illustrated, as previous scholars focus on

print media, their definition does not pertain to the scope of this study. As a result, the

operational definition for the subcategory suggestive attire was created specific to this

study.

Screenshots Outline

The analysis in this study examined four themes related to gender serotyping and

gender role portrayal: 1) domestic female; 2) heroic male; 3) physical appeal; and 4)

damsel in distress. It used three screenshots for the four films—a total of 12 screenshots

(“SS” below) per theme, times four themes, for 48 screenshots. The layout of screenshots

fall into the following outline:

Traditional (1937-1989) Contemporary (1990-present)

Snow White Cinderella The Princess and the Frog Tangled

1) dom. fem. 1) dom. fem. 1) dom. fem. 1) dom. fem.

SS 1 SS 1 SS 1 SS 1

SS 2 SS 2 SS 2 SS 2

SS 3 SS 3 SS 3 SS 3

2) heroic male 2) heroic male 2) heroic male 2) heroic male

SS 1 SS 1 SS 1 SS 1

SS 2 SS 2 SS 2 SS 2

SS 3 SS 3 SS 3 SS 3

3) phys. app. 3) phys. app. 3) phys. app. 3) phys. app.

SS 1 SS 1 SS 1 SS 1

SS 2 SS 2 SS 2 SS 2

SS 3 SS 3 SS 3 SS 3

4) damsel 4) damsel 4) damsel 4) damsel

SS 1 SS 1 SS 1 SS 1

SS 2 SS 2 SS 2 SS 2

SS 3 SS 3 SS 3 SS 3

Analysis of the screenshots from “domestic female” are grouped into two

categories: 1) domestic work; and 2) helpful. Domestic work is defined as any physical

action or behavior pertaining to the home, the household, household affairs, or the family

consisting of, but not limited to, cooking, cleaning, sewing, washing clothes, caring for

others. Helpful is defined as any behavior of service or actions rendering or affording

help, useful when assistance is needed, this requires a specific action performed that gave

another person or animal direct assistance including assisting someone or something with

domestic work.

Analysis of the screenshots from “heroic male” is divided into six subcategories:

1) professional/noble occupation; 2) independent; 3) physically fit/athletic ability; 4)

rescue; 5) adventurous; and 6) intellectual ability. Professional/noble occupation is

defined as having a job or career as a commander or leader or being born into an

honorable title that will provide power. Independent is defined as not depending on the

authority of another, being autonomous or self-governing. Also, able to perform and

complete task without assistance of another person, animal or object. Physically

fit/athletic ability is defined as a jump or kick that was large enough to require some

athleticism. Running is categorized as athletic and muscles are categorized with

physically fit. Lastly, hitting or moving something, providing evidence that the character

had a strong physical effect on the person or object. Rescue is defined as the ability to

solely rescue someone or thing or to assist (either human or animal) in a rescue that was

successful, or as the lead in an unsuccessful rescue. Adventurous is defined as

courageous, daring, intrepid and will also include being involved in a rescue or leadership

in the face of danger. Also, this category included search or exploration, to want to find

and know the unknown. Intelligence ability will be defined as engaging in the intellect,

including showing the use of thought. Also, providing information on specific matter(s)

and or displaying knowledge with a certain skill(s).

Analysis of the screenshots from “physical appeal” is broken into two

subcategories: 1) concerned with physical appearance; and 2) acknowledged for physical

attractiveness. Concerned with physical appearance is defined as adjusting physical

appearance, tending to hair, applying makeup, posing and or adjusting clothes, for the

purpose of making it look better or to draw attention to it. Acknowledged for physical

attractiveness is defined as recognized by another character(s) for their physical

appearance including body type and attire. This includes any physical expression

regarding the beauty or appearance of a character.

Analysis of the screenshots from “damsel in distress” is divided into five

subcategories: 1) suggestive attire; 2) weak in physical strength; 3) receives/follows

advice; 4) emotional; and 5) being rescued. Suggestive attire is defined as exposed skin in

the chest, back and upper leg area, low cuts in top that accentuate or insinuate cleavage or

disproportionate cleavage size to physique, high heels, short skirts and/or dresses. It also

includes illustrations of petite body type through characters physical attributes, which

appears to be thin, small waist and stomach with little or no body fat visible. Weak in

physical strength is defined through a characters inability to succeed in something that

takes physical strength. Also, needing assistance from another person, animal, or object

to compensate for lack of physical strength. Lastly, not being able to perform or complete

something because of lack of physical strength and is also included in the category.

Receives/follows advice is defined when any character asks directly for help, or needs

assistance and is open to receiving assistance such that it is clear the character wants it

and accepts it. Following advice or instructions given instead of coming up with their

own approach is included in this subcategory. Emotional is defined as the expression of

both positive and negative representation of feeling. Display of fear (a state of alarm or

dread), anticipation (excitement for or at the possibility of accomplishment), surprise, and

extreme happiness etc., will also be included. Also, any change in mood as a result of

situation or circumstance. This subcategory includes crying in the physical act through

tears while showing the face. Also, when a character puts his/ her face down, such that it

was no longer visible, and implication of crying with rocking, shakes and sobs. Being

rescued is defined as being saved from a dangerous situation.

Every item on screen in a film has meaning (Cunningham, 2014). From the

arrangement of objects, the placement of characters, to even the color of clothing these

elements are chosen to communicate or illustrate specific messages. Color has been

identified through previous research by Callister and colleagues as a strong indicator and

enforcer of gender identification and was chosen as an element for examination in this

thesis. The main colors associated with gender for female are most notably pink and

purple, which are derived from red and violet and are considered warm colors, and blue

for male. It has been found that red in regards to clothing is identified as a feminine color

of association due to the warm nature of the colors, in contrast green, which is considered

a cool color, is identified as a masculine color (Karnoil, 2011). For this particular study

yellow is considered a neutral color association. The color spectrum of 1) violet; 2) red;

3) orange; 4) yellow; 5) green; 6) blue; and 7) indigo considers the first three colors listed

as warm color with feminine association and the last three as cool colors with a

masculine association. The fourth color yellow, which falls directly in between the two

categories is considered neither cool nor warm and therefore has neither masculine nor

feminine association but neutrality. In addition to the four themes, the princesses

signature outfits, the ensemble and all related accessories in which their character is

visually associated with on the website, was recorded for the colors present and

accessories that accompany the outfit illustrated. This measure aimed to identify patterns

and analyze color association alignment with stereotypical gender behavior to further

examine specific gender assignment cues. Additionally, this measure analyzed gender

categorizing as color illustrations are used to reinforce gender stereotypes or supplement

the lack of stereotypical gendered behavior.

As new animated films are released Disney continues to face criticism and

examination for the messages they are teaching to children. This study adds additional

research to the ever-growing Disney Princess brand. Although previous research has

analyzed gender stereotypes no published works found have included Tangled in their

analysis. A study published in 2013 in the Journal of Communication included Tangled

in the sample but analyzed the film for pro-social behaviors. This study will add to the

body of literature on gender stereotypes and the Disney Princess franchise through

thematic analysis of more recent films to see if and how the picture has changed.

CHAPTER 3:

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Incorporating the four themes previously mentioned, this chapter discusses

screenshots taken from each movie and interprets their composition towards constructing

gender principles. Through this interpretation patterns will be identified and discussed

across the two individual film groups, traditional and contemporary, and then compared.

These patterns assess the various aspects of the four themes to gage the change over time,

from traditional films to contemporary films, through implications in relation to gender

roles indicated. Lastly, this chapter discusses the gender cue of color in the signature

outfit and accessories for each Disney princess from the four films analyzed.

Findings

Domestic Female: Traditional

The theme of domestic female included two subcategories: 1) domestic work; and

2) helpful. The first subcategory domestic work was found in each of the 12 screenshots

for both traditional and contemporary films. These physical actions were concrete making

them easier to illustrate and identify visually. However, the subcategory helpful was

alluded to throughout all four movies and was occasionally conveyed, although rarely

concretely and is present physically in only one of the screenshots chosen for analysis in

this thesis.

The two films in the traditional category, Cinderella and Snow White and the

Seven Dwarfs, illustrated the princesses in domestic acts of cleaning, cooking, and

serving. Although sewing, mending, and washing were mentioned orally, neither

character in this category illustrated these actions physically or visually. The implication

of the above-mentioned tasks expresses an importance for domestic acts and their

connection to female characters although not illustrated visually. Including these actions

verbally still creates an association of the task with female characters. This category

yielded princesses, Snow White and Cinderella, that were forced to perform domestic

work, however, Snow White later voluntarily partook in domestic work for the dwarfs.

Snow White was a young princess who was forced to wear ragged clothes and

complete tasks that soiled her clothing to hide her incredible outer beauty. As Snow

White grew older, her beauty matured and could no longer be hidden behind shabby

clothes or the dirt from her chores. Cinderella grew up a wealthy maiden whose father

achieved financial success. With her mother’s passing, her father remarried to provide

Cinderella with the maternal figure she lacked. Soon her father took ill and also passed,

leaving Cinderella in the care of her stepmother who quickly spent a substantial portion

of the father’s fortune on her two daughters from a previous relationship. With most of

the money gone the domestic help that once staffed the house could no longer be

afforded, however, there was still work to be done. These chores became the sole

responsibility of Cinderella, a female, as dictated by her stepmother. The backstories of

the traditional princesses share one common thread; forced domestic work on female

characters.

As a result, princesses in the traditional category were visually depicted in the

physical act of cleaning but it was constructed in a manner that illustrated it as strenuous

and tedious. Both princesses of the traditional group were depicted cleaning the floors on

their hands and knees. [See Appendix: Screen Shot (SS) 1 “Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs: Domestic Female,” and SS2 “Cinderella: Domestic Female”].

The physical exhaustion associated with Snow White scrubbing the steps in the

outside garden gives the idea that the outdoors are never really clean. One can assume

that this could be a daily task, and if not daily, still a task that will always need to be

performed. Although we only see her scrubbing the stairs the act implies that she intends

to clean the entire outdoor floor. This implication is supported by the scene following the

above mentioned screenshot in which Snow White looks up and sighs and then returns to

the well to replenish her water bucket used for cleaning. This creates the message that

domestic work is an everyday task, and conventional chores are never fully completed.

Additional gender standards are implied through the illustrations, which only depict

female characters performing domestic tasks. These illustrations created gender

associations with the tasks individually and domestic work as a whole and identified such

work as a female undertaking.

Cinderella’s depiction differs from Snow White while cleaning the floor in that

she is inside, and the area that she must clean is defined by the camera angle, showing her

small figure in the middle of a large floor, on her hands and knees with a soapy bucket,

rag, and brush. [See Appendix: SS2 “Cinderella: Domestic Female”]. Although,

Cinderella performs several domestic acts prior to this one. She feeds the animals, makes

breakfast for her stepmother and stepsisters, and serves them their food in their bedrooms

at which times she picks up their laundry and receives other task to complete throughout

the day. However, the floor cleaning scene act is emphasized through the length of time

the camera spends on this scene. The entire scene is just over a minute long, which may

seem like an hour to a young child, the scene displays the room from different angles

over the course of time to continue to engage the target audience; young children with

limited attention span. Paired with the lengthy time frame, the repetitiveness provided

thorough the whimsical feature of bubbles reflecting Cinderella’s image cleaning the

floor reiterates the importance of domestic acts. The bubble feature creates a direct appeal

to the target audience, as bubbles are fun and unique. This combined with duplicated

images that depict gender standards creates a greater force and possibly a stronger impact

on the viewing audience especially children.

One unique feature present in both domestic tasks of cleaning the floor was that

the two princesses were illustrated with objects that were of small ratio in comparison to

the space that they intended to cover [See Appendix: SS1 “Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs: Domestic Female,” and SS2 “Cinderella: Domestic Female”]. This visual

imagery conveys the message that regardless of the tools one has to assist them with their

chores the real power lies within. This imagery emphasizes the significance of their

personal strength. In addition to tools, the demeanor of the women while performing their

tasks was an essential element.

Each of the two princesses were pleasant while performing their tasks even in

forced situations. Cinderella was illustrated visually completing her task while

maintaining a pleasant attitude. When called upon several times she never raises her

voice in objection or disgust. This illustrates the nonvisual element of patience. We see

her going about her tasks without complaints and her facial expressions do not show

discomfort or displeasure for the tasks she performs. Like Cinderella, Snow White goes

about her task with similar facial expressions and is even visually depicted as smiling

while scrubbing the ground [See Appendix: SS1 “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs:

Domestic Female]. These facial gestures express the importance of the enjoyment of

domestic tasks for females in these roles.

Although, we do not physically see Cinderella cooking it is implied that she

prepared the food she serves as well [See Appendix SS1; “Cinderella: Domestic

Female”]. Snow White is physically illustrated preparing food for the dwarfs [See

Appendix SS3; “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Domestic Female”]. However, she is

not forced to perform this task but chooses to perform these actions upon her free will.

The irony of Snow White choosing to perform a domestic task to show her usefulness to

the cottage is that she connects her worth with her domestic work. The significance

behind the messages lies in the background of the princesses, who were brought up in

estates that initially provided all of these services for them. They apparently learned to

perform such tasks and do so with ease and elegance. These images serve as mental

motivation for inspiring gender related behaviors and specifically depict the relationship

between domestic work and female gender regardless of economic status.

Lastly, for the traditional category, helpful was reiterated though several aspects,

but was seldom illustrated visually, as most domestic acts were carried out for the benefit

of another. The absence of human help for the princesses with domestic work was

significant to the theme. We see both Snow White and Cinderella receiving help, but only

from animals in relation to domestic work.

While cleaning the dwarfs’ cottages, Snow White receives help from the forest

animals who all pitch in to clean up [See Appendix SS2; “Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs: Domestic Female”]. Cinderella’s morning routine was accomplished with the

help of the birds and mice from the making of her bed to the washing and dressing of her

body. The birds, that are illustrated genderless, are present but the male mice are escorted

from the room and only the female mice assist Cinderella in her dressing routine. The

lack of human assistance, especially male, to the female characters but the presence of

magical animal assistance is sending the message that domestic work is the responsibility

of the female and that males are not to trouble themselves with domestic tasks.

Domestic Female: Contemporary

The contemporary film category, like the traditional, illustrated each princess

cleaning, cooking and or serving food. Tiana is raised in a working class family and

developed a love for food and cooking. She learns from her father that good food can

bring people together and hard work will take you far. She is the only princess who

receives advice on the benefits of domestic work. Although she is not forced by another

individual into servitude she in a way forces herself into servitude as a means of

achieving her dreams. She is captive to her dreams and therefore performs these domestic

tasks towards achieving these dreams.

Unlike Tiana, Rapunzel is born into a royal family and is gifted with magical

powers from a magical flower used upon her mother while she was pregnant. This

magical flower served as the fountain of youth for one old woman who upon discovery of

its disappearance sought to locate it. Connecting the princess to the flower, she soon

realized that the new princess held the same magic powers through music. Stealing

Rapunzel as a baby, she takes her deep into the forest and hides her away in a tall tower

with no direct entrance where she keeps her captive. However, Rapunzel grows up with

no knowledge of this and spends her entire life in the tower where she cleans and cooks,

not by force but for entertainment.

Cooking was the dominant act in The Princess and the Frog and was the only

film that visually depicted the future princess as a child partaking in a domestic act [See

Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the Frog: Domestic Female”]. Princess Tiana is seen

cooking at a young age. Although her age is not specifically identified, it is expressed

through the need of assistance from a chair for her to stand on in order to reach the pot on

the stove. This change was not presented visually in the other contemporary film or in

either traditional movie. However, before cleaning Rapunzel acknowledged the acts she

performed as her morning tasks were her daily routine. Through these words, one can

interpret them as implying that she has been doing these acts, perhaps daily, for some

time and maybe even years, perhaps since a young child. This new element of linking

domestic work to young children could be attributed to the desire to imbed the

importance of domestic acts into females at younger ages. By depicting images of

characters that are relatable in age range and gender teaches young girls not only should

they be learning domestic traits but also suggesting that they start at a young age as to

have such skills mastered by the time they meet their prince charming.

The two contemporary princesses were illustrated differently than the traditional

princesses in the performance of their domestic acts. In each contemporary film, the

princess performed a task by choice rather than force. The manner in which they

implemented these tasks differed from those in the traditional category as well. Tiana was

employed as a waitress at two restaurants. Although, he chose this profession over other

available options, her occupation sends the message that women should work in positions

acceptable to the domestic traits they are expected to learn. Taking pride in her work, she

serviced her guests and went above and beyond to provide excellent service. She took

pride in the execution of her work and this was illustrated through her physical actions

and attitude. She served her customers with a big smile and a spring in her step and chose

to work rather than hang out with friends.

Much like Tiana, Rapunzel’s attitude and actions illustrate her doing domestic

task show excitement and fun. She is illustrated with brushes on her feet that give a look

similar to skates with the mop in her hand. The amusement in the situation is illustrated

thought a huge smile on her face [See Appendix SS2; “Tangled: Domestic Female”]..

Even when performing the task of sweeping the floor she does so with simplicity,

amusement, and a smile [See Appendix SS1; “Tangled: Domestic Female”]. She swept

the floor with a glide and sway that expressed approval and enjoyment for the act that she

was performing. Each domestic act is implemented to highlight the fun and enjoyment of

it and not the laborious and strenuous component.

The domestic act of servitude was present across both categories in all four films.

Tiana, who turned into a frog, performed domestic servitude in both dimensions, human

and animal [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the Frog: Domestic Female”]. While

employed as a server she was illustrated serving in her work environment as well as

outside of her work place, at the La Bouff mansion, while in human form. Upon turning

into a frog, Tiana, who was not being paid to perform these tasks, cooks, and serves

Prince Naveen, who was in the form of a male frog [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess

and the Frog: Domestic Female”]. This voluntary act implies that a female should want

to be helpful and perform domestic servitude acts not because she has to but she should

desires to especially for males. After cooking a swamp gumbo, she then exemplifies the

helpful and domestic work subcategory and serves the gumbo to the prince. Illustrations

like these imply that regardless of the situation you find yourself in as a female you are

always expected to perform domestic acts including serving.

The act of serving was illustrated in both categories, traditional and

contemporary, concretely by the physical act, and indirectly through object association.

The physical act is implied more often through suggestion with items than depiction.

Serving trays functioned as the primary object of association with the act of serving [See

Appendix SS1; “Cinderella: Domestic Female”, SS2; “The Princess and the Frog:

Domestic Female”, and SS3; “Tangled: Domestic Female”]. Three of the four princesses,

with the exclusion of Snow White, were illustrated with serving trays. Chronologically the

amount of trays the princesses carry grew in numbers over the years. Beginning with

lucky number three for Cinderella, who holds one in each hand and balances the third on

her head [See Appendix SS1; “Cinderella: Domestic Female”]. Tiana, balances four

plates standing on one leg, she holds the first three identical to Cinderella and the fourth

with the opposite leg from balancing [See Appendix SS2; “The Princess and the Frog:

Domestic Female”]. Lastly, Rapunzel demonstrates the ability to balance five plates, one

on her head, and two additional balanced on each hand and forearm [See Appendix SS3;

“Tangled: Domestic Female”]. The exaggerated illustrations of such depictions reaffirms

the task and highlights items associated with the act of service which refer back to the

initial task, implying a new message of service capabilities.

The above interpretations produced several patterns. These patterns show a

change over time through the theme and provide possible interpretations of illustrations

for domestic work, approaches to domestic work, and the relationship between the ages

of the character depicted when introducing domestic acts. Also, with regards to service

there is a significance emphasis on the act and an increase and in the amount of objects

one is able to balance when performing the act to further highlight the deed.

Heroic Male: Traditional

Screenshots collected for heroic male theme in the traditional category fell into

one of five subcategories with noble occupation as the most prevalent being conveyed in

each of the six screenshots. Physically fit/athletic ability, intellectual ability,

independence and adventurous appeared individually or in various combinations in at

least one screenshot. Although, rescue was depicted it was not illustrated in a climatic

way as to concretely display physical illustrations.

Traditional males were identified simply as prince and were given no definite

names. Snow White’s prince was simple referred to as “the prince,” and Cinderella’s as

“Prince Charming.” The lack of identification shows the simplistic nature of their

illustrations. Not only did the princes lack identification they also lacked substance in

character. Their personality was conveyed through their physical appearance, which

focused on their outward appearance and noble association. This created the notion that

men should be chosen not by their inner characteristic but by their looks and rank alone

as illustrations communicating the male characters noble association dominated the

traditional category.

The prince in Snow White [See Appendix SS1; “Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs: Heroic Male”] communicates his noble association through his clothing. His

clothing is ornamented, showing no wear or tears, with puffed sleeves and paired with a

hat containing a feather. This image conveys the lavish nature of his outfit through these

features. The same is seen in Prince Charming’s outfit in Cinderella, which was

illustrated in a portrait, in royal attire embellished with gold tassels on the breast and

shoulders [See Appendix SS1; “Cinderella: Heroic Male”]. The photograph of his clothes

from the portrait was the same for the prince’s physical depictions in the film. Both

princes remain in the same attire, as illustrated in all six screenshots in the traditional

category, that they are introduced to the audience in throughout their entire appearance in

each film.

Their clothing is essential to their identification because as their clothing stays

consistent the character is easily identifiable as the prince each time they are depicted on

the screen. This creates a visual association with their attire and their character, a prince,

and reiterates their noble association. Such associations go beyond the realm of wealth

and money and create significance to the kinds of physical traits and mannerisms one

should seek in males.

Their actions reiterate their nobility, but their dress distinguishes them. When

Prince Charming meets Cinderella he bows [See Appendix SS2; “Cinderella: Heroic

Male”]. The prince in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is illustrated bowing as well and

taking his hat off to Snow White, a display of proper manners acquired through proper

education, and revealing his golden sword [See Appendix SS2; “Snow White and the

Seven Dwarfs: Heroic Male”]. The physical act conveys the action of a true gentleman

but the object frames him as a protector who is suited with the necessary tool to defend

him and others. The prince in Cinderella, which followed Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs in creation, was illustrated in a royal portrait decorated with a large, long golden

sword [See Appendix SS1; “Cinderella: Heroic Male”]. The enormity of the items links

the object to strength and power implying qualities males should possess which could be

obtained through instruments requiring skill. This illustration displays both his noble

association and intellectual ability, as sword fighting is an art form as to swing a sword

and strike your opponent takes skill. The golden color of each sword further suggests

their noble background as it expresses the luxurious nature of the objects alluding to its

expensive value rather than being made of a common material such as metal as

blacksmiths produce and sell to the peasant community. These elements, which appear

insignificant individually, like the trivial elements in their clothing, collectively imply a

heroic and noble character by setting the character apart from common people. By

highlighting such elements these illustrations create the implication that men should be

well dressed and their attire will identify and define their honorable character. However,

these depictions also convey the message that their honorable characteristic should align

with their physical appearance.

The prince in Snow White was the only male character in conventional human

form, as a dwarf is considered a mythical creature, illustrated in the film and this feature

coincides with his independent nature. He appears alone in his first scene riding on his

horse opposite the castle wall. In the next frame he is climbing over the wall, which

displayed his athletic ability and adventurous nature, as he does not know what he may

encounter once over the wall, especially since he was traveling alone [See Appendix SS1;

“Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Heroic Male”]. Disappearing until the closing scene,

he once again is illustrated approaching alone without any company. These illustrations,

which are the extent of the prince’s depictions in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,

highlight his independence simply by representing him alone each time. This illustrated

his lack of dependency on others as he required no help to hop over a wall or transport

the princess back to his castle [See Appendix SS1 & SS3; “Snow White and the Seven

Dwarfs: Heroic Male”].

The same applies to Prince Charming, who was always illustrated in physical

form separate from his father and the Duke and had just returned to the castle after being

away. His absence shows his independent nature and implies the ability to venture out

and explore away from his home. The princes ability to self-regulate shows the

independence of their character and associates the action with the male sex creating

gender perceptions.

Heroic Male: Contemporary

The contemporary group had a decline in the subcategory noble occupation as

only one of the two males was of royal association, Prince Naveen in The Princess and

the Frog. Of the six screenshots, this subcategory appeared in only two. Prince Naveen is

identified as a prince from his first visual illustration. He is depicted in a royal outfit of

cream and gold with embellishments on the breast and shoulders, much like the attire of

Prince Charming [See Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the Frog: Heroic Male”].

However, he is also adorned with a sash and a crown to further distinguish his noble

association. The crown was an object not present with the traditional princes [See

Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the Frog: Heroic Male”]. This new object is directly

associated to his royal status and identifies him as noble even when the visual

illustrations do not convey that association physically. These added features appear with

the initial illustration to communicate his noble association, which was not always

illustrated through his appearance [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the Frog:

Heroic Male”]. Unlike traditional princes, Prince Naveen was not branded solely through

his outward appearance specifically his outfits. As traditional princes remained in their

royal attire through each of the films in their group, contemporary princes shifted away

from this measure. Prince Naveen, although initially introduced in his royal attire, was

illustrated in ordinary clothing [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the Frog: Heroic

Male”]. These images highlight the importance of the initial royal illustration of the

prince. The first appearance is often the most notable, and it presents the prince in such a

notable manner that it visually creates a noble perception imbedded in the audience’s

mind for his character, regardless of appearance in attire and or form. However, towards

the end of the film, Prince Naveen returns to his royal attire and is depicted in on outfit,

outfitted with gold embellishments on the breast and shoulders and sporting his sash but

without the crown [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the Frog: Heroic Male”].

The initial royal association is also important to the character of Prince Naveen as

he is transformed into a frog. However, while still in human form, he undergoes a

wardrobe change, this feature was not present in either male of the traditional category.

Contemporary males, non-royal attire, depicted sleeves that are situated upward in the

way that exposes the skin of the forearm [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the

Frog: Heroic Male” and SS1; “Tangled: Heroic Male”]. This element is present among

ordinary clothes for both contemporary males and is a change from traditional depictions

that illustrated the males fully covered. The exposed areas allude to muscles and draw

attention to the forearms, which bring focus to any actions done with their hands and

arms. Attention created by this detail highlights movements done with the arm often

associated with physical ability. While rescuing the satchel Flynn hangs on to a tree

branch by with one arm the other clutching the bag [See Appendix SS2; “Tangled: Heroic

Male”]. While climbing up the tower once again his action focuses on his arms directly as

they he uses arrows, which he holds in his hands, to climb up the tower [See Appendix

SS3; “Tangled: Heroic Male”]. Even when simply running Flynn pumps his arms as he

moves drawing attention to his arms and exposed forearm [See Appendix SS1; “Tangled:

Heroic Male”]. All of these actions express his physical ability, strength, intellectual

knowledge of skills and adventurous nature. The exposed part of his arm captures the

viewer’s attention and draws greater attention to the actions he is performing. All princes

with the exception of Flynn Rider in Tangled were of royal lineage. However, the lack of

noble occupation did not diminish Disney’s ability to depict and in classify him as a

heroic male through other elements such as his physical activities.

Traditional princes were one-dimensional and their noble association was paired

with minimal physical elements most often connected to attire that further communicated

their royal connection and provided enough contextual information it also support their

heroic image contemporary princes saw a shift away from this pattern. Although this

category revealed a decline in the noble/profession occupation subcategory, this group

revealed an increase in the physically fit/athletic ability and adventurous categories.

These two subcategories comprised majority of the elements that communicated heroic

male for the contemporary group. These elements seemingly insignificant individually

but collectively create gender perceptions.

Over the years, the princes in the Disney Princess franchise films have seen a shift

from one-dimensional to two-dimensional. Traditionally princes were featured in

supporting roles with little screen time and were mostly depicted with the princess.

Additionally, little information was disclosed on their background with the exception of

noble connection and other elements illustrated were limited to objects that supported this

main category. In contrast to their traditional counterparts, contemporary princes have

seen an increase in the amount of screen time as well as the quality of interactions.

Princes in the contemporary category were depicted individually in scenes that provided

insight into their character often displaying skills.

However, one of the biggest shifts was in the physical attributes of the male

characters in their appearance specifically their attire. Both set of films presented minor

elements with large significance. This pattern was presented several times though

different elements specifically in sleeves in both groups. The sleeves, which were present

in both groups represented wealth and noble association for the traditional category but

strength and physical and athletic ability for contemporary males. Male characters

evolved from being strictly identified through their outfits paired with indirect objects to

reiterate noble association to objects that directly identify them royally. The swords were

indirect associations to noble relation, because of the golden color, in contrast to the

crown, which created a direct association to royal connection. Additionally,

contemporary males were more diverse and expansive. The contemporary male charters

provided subplots to the main female characters, as we learn about them and receive

insight into their backstory as well as their personality.

Physical Appeal: Traditional

Physical appeal was illustrated concretely through a character’s concern for his or

her personal attractiveness more often than depicting them as an object of esteem through

the admiring gaze of others. Princesses in the traditional group were illustrated

performing actions that communicated concern for their personal appearance. Actions

illustrating the princesses concerns or enhancements of their physical appearances were

present in five of the six screenshots for the traditional group with only one screenshot

concretely depicting the princess as the object of admiration. However, the latter

subcategory was conveyed verbally several times in both films.

Of the five illustrations depicting the princesses concern for their physical

appearance, hair was the primary feature of concern for both princesses. This element

was highlighted and adjusted for physical enhancement by each princess in the traditional

category and was present in three of the five screenshots for this subcategory. Hair was

one element of their physical appearance that the princesses were able to modify to enrich

their physical charm. This particular feature, regardless of their drab attire, could be

amended to add physical appeal.

Snow White, even when she was illustrated in the drab attire she cleaned in, took

pride in her appearance regardless of her outfit. Although she could not change her drab

cleaning attire when she met the prince by surprise in the garden she ran away and made

sure to groom her hair before returning into view to greet him [See Appendix SS1; “Snow

White and the Seven Dwarfs: Physical Appeal”]. This depiction creates the general

implication that despite ones attire, even if they are just cleaning, their physical

appearance is still important. Specifically this illustration indicates when meeting a male

a female should enhance whatever features possible so that she can to appear more in the

most physically attractive manner.

Cinderella, in contrast to Snow White, was not concerned with her physical

appearance because in the absence of male suitors she grooms herself for her personal

gratification. However, like Snow White, she chose her hair as an element of

enhancement. The first illustration of the character Cinderella in her present age in the

film is set in her bedroom with her waking from a night of sleep. Upon sitting up in the

bed, prior to even stepping foot out of the bed, she takes loose her hair, which was

braided, and grooms it with a brush she keeps on her nightstand [See Appendix SS1;

“Cinderella: Physical Appeal”]. It is the first task she performed of the day and highlights

her concern for her physical appeal. Although no male suitor was around it can be

implied that she was planning for the possibility of meeting one. This illustration conveys

the message that the first thing that should be on a females mind when she wakes up is

what she looks like and how can she better her outward appearance. Also, it implies that

appearance is the top priority of females and task to enhance physical appearance should

be conducted immediately in the morning. Enhancing these elements should be the first

task of the day before all others because one never knows what the day holds and whom

she could meet throughout the day. Although no male suitor was around it can be inferred

that she was planning for any possibility, which creates a standard of physical aspiration

for the female gender.

Later, as Cinderella is depicted cleaning the floors, she pauses her task to groom

her hair and admire herself in a reflection of a bubble [See Appendix SS2; “Cinderella:

Physical Appeal”]. This concern with her appearance in the mist of her task once again

indicates the importance for physical appearance. Also, this action and the hair element

were highlighted through a double illustration provided by the reflection in the bubble

reinforcing the significance to the act. Although, Cinderella’s hair was covered in a

bonnet she still adjusted it in a manner to beautify both it and herself. The accessory did

not hinder her desire to enhance features that can improve physical attractiveness. Each

traditional princess had an accessory that adorned their hair when depicted in drab attire,

Snow White was fitted with a bow and Cinderella a bonnet [See Appendix SS1; “Snow

White and the Seven Dwarfs: Physical Appeal” and SS2; “Cinderella: Physical Appeal”].

This created further focus on the hair component. In addition they were each illustrated

with red lips, suggesting the presence of lipstick which is directly associated with

makeup, which created attention and focus to their facial features regardless of their

attire.

However, regardless of their attire, drab or fabulous, each princess was concerned

with their physical appeal. Their concern for their appearance was present and

highlighted in dangerous situations. These illustrations were depicted after the

transformation of the traditional princesses outfits from drab cleaning attire to their

fabulous signature outfits. After being led into the woods by the huntsman who was

ordered to kill her, Snow White was warned and ran away. Frightened she takes off

running into the woods. In such a state of fright one would assume that the main subject

of concern would be safety. However, in Snow White’s case she flees in a way as not to

tear or dirty her dress [See Appendix SS2; “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Physical

Appeal”]. Before running off she is visually illustrated lifting the hem of her gown so that

it does not drag on the ground. She proceeds to run, holding it in her hand the entire time.

This illustration suggests that even in as state of fear, you must preserve your appearance.

Also, it implies that when performing task one should be conscious of their physical

attractiveness and display concern for their personal appearance.

Both implications were present in Cinderella as well. Once realizing that it was

almost midnight Cinderella flees out of the ball in a race against time. Not wanting to be

exposed to the prince she must leave before the magical spell wears off. Even when

strapped for time Cinderella was sure to preserve her appearance by preserving her outfit

and grabbing the hem of her gown and fleeing [See Appendix SS3; “Cinderella: Physical

Appeal”].

Although the physical attractiveness of each traditional princess was

acknowledged by another character these actions were rarely visually depicted. This

element was conveyed more oral than visual. However, Snow White was visually

illustrated as an object of physical attraction. Upon her sleeping death Snow White was

placed in a glass coffin because her beauty was too great to be covered even in death. The

forest animals and dwarfs were illustrated mourning and admiring her in this state [See

Appendix SS3; “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Physical Appeal”]. This illustrated

represented and depicted their acknowledgement of her physical beauty. The element was

further communicated when the prince arrives and is so stunned by her beauty that he

wants to kiss her even in death. The messages implied by these illustrations create gender

principles for customary actions to enhance physical appeal for the betterment of oneself

as well as others. Additionally they create an ideal image of beauty for females and

express the importance of this element.

Physical Appeal: Contemporary

Like their traditional counterparts both subcategories, concerned with physical

appearance and acknowledgement for physical attractiveness were present in the

contemporary films as well. Also, their hair was the feature highlighted to emphasize

their physical appeal. However, unlike traditional princesses this element appeared in

both subcategories. This category also saw an increase in presence and complexity in the

second subcategory, acknowledged for physical attractiveness. Although, traditional

princesses were acknowledged for their physical attractiveness it was not illustrated

concretely. This subcategory was visually illustrated in each contemporary film and the

illustration exhibited both the object of affection and the facial expression of the admirer,

which was not present in the traditional depiction. The addition of this element created

strength in action as well as the message being conveyed from the depiction.

Illustrations supporting this subcategory were present in four of the six

screenshots for the contemporary princesses. Each screenshot for The Princess and the

Frog featured an element of this subcategory and was the main feature of two screenshots

in the film. Although Tiana was not concerned with her physical appearance often, she

was the object of admiration for more than one male character in the film. During the

opening song she is illustrated taking the trolley to work when she catches the eye of a

male passenger who smiles down at her [See Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the Frog:

Physical Appeal”]. This concrete facial feature paired with his gesture of offering her his

lapel flower visually acknowledges her physical appeal. Another example of this

subcategory was also depicted during the opening song of the movie by another

character. Prince Naveen, who has just arrived in New Orleans, is roaming through the

streets playing his banjo with a jazz band. Upon seeing Tiana, who is outside of the

restaurant clearing tables, he comes over, stops playing his instrument, and gazes at her

with a smile that expresses his acknowledgement of her physical attractiveness [See

Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the Frog: Physical Appeal”]. The facial expressions of

male admirers clearly define the action and object of affection, which was not present in

the traditional category. These illustrations imply that females should be, and aim to be,

the object of admiration for males creating gender perceptions. It also characterizes

females as the admired and males as the admirer creating additional gender standards.

Like with traditional princesses, hair was an element used to convey physical

appeal and appeared in the contemporary category as well. The above-mentioned

illustrations share one common physical feature for the princess, which is her subtle curl

dangling over her forehead [See Appendix SS1 & SS2; “The Princess and the Frog:

Physical Appeal”]. The illustration for this feature slightly differs from the trolley

screenshot, where her curl is hanging from underneath her hat, its presence among other

features illustrated makes it appear as a mere coincidence or menial feature. However, its

appearance in the screenshot with Prince Naveen confirms its association with her

physical attractiveness [See Appendix SS2; “The Princess and the Frog: Physical

Appeal”]. The hat draws attention to her facial features and the one curl dangling creates

a significant association with the feature [See Appendix SS1; “The Princess and the

Frog: Physical Appeal”]. The illustration outside of the restaurant highlights it through

the angle of her head, because her expression was not the message she could have been

illustrated with her head turned hiding the curl, however the animator illustrated the scene

to depict this feature. Even when princess Tiana is acknowledged her attractiveness while

at the same time being acknowledged by prince Naveen for her physical appeal the hair

feature is once again present [See Appendix SS3; “The Princess and the Frog: Physical

Appeal”].

Hair as a significant element of physical appeal was present in Tangled as well.

Known for her long, golden hair it was a featured element in each screenshot as it

pertained to both the plot of the story but also created physical appeal. Rapunzel groomed

her hair daily by brushing it as to keep it in immaculate condition [See Appendix SS1;

“Tangled: Physical Appeal”]. This illustration conveyed the message that grooming

oneself for personal satisfaction of appearance is an important trait of being a female.

However, Rapunzel was also illustrated fixing her hair for enhancement for the

admiration of a male [See Appendix SS2; “Tangled: Physical Appeal”]. In contrast to the

earlier depiction this illustration reverts to implications made in the traditional category

that female should enhance any possible element to appear physically appealing to males.

The element of hair was also present when Rapunzel was the object of admiration by

Flynn Rider appearing with flowers adorned in every curve of her braid [See Appendix

SS3; “Tangled: Physical Appeal”].

The contemporary film Tangled depicted a princess who appeared in the same

outfit, her signature outfit, for the majority of the movie. One outfit change took place but

did not happen until one hour and thirty minutes into an hour and thirty-one minute long

movie. Although she changed her outfit the primary color, light purple, and style of each

outfit were similar. So much so that if you did not watch very closely you could have

missed it. This new feature communicates that regardless of what you are doing and

where you are, even locked in a tower where you never meet anyone, you should always

be dressed in your best. These implications create gender perceptions.

However, the absence of illustrations communicates gender stereotypes. Neither

category presented a male who was the object of admiration by a female nor were any

males illustrated showing concern for their physical appearance. The lack of these

features creates gender perceptions by associating such actions as female qualities and

characteristics. Patterns produced by the physical appeal identified hair as a major feature

associated with physical appeal when showing personal concern for physical appearance

and when being acknowledged for attractiveness. Along with this feature accessories

were present in both categories to further highlight this feature. The contemporary

category saw a shift in the depictions of princesses acknowledged for physical

attractiveness to more concrete depictions. By illustrating the actions and emotions of

both the admirer and the admired it intensified the action. Lastly, the contemporary

category shifted the focus from the importance of multiple outfits, not depicting Rapunzel

in both a cleaning outfit and her signature gown.

Damsel in Distress: Traditional

Damsel in Distress was illustrated through five subcategories: 1) suggestive attire;

2) weak in physical strength; 3) receives/follows advice; 4) emotional; and 5) being

rescued. Of these categories all five were present across the set of 12 screenshots for the

entire theme. However, some images were only present in one of the two groups,

traditional and contemporary.

In the traditional category each subcategory was present and illustrated visually.

Weak in physical strength and receives/follows advice were each illustrated separately in

one of the six screenshots for the traditional category. The lead female character in both

films receives help but it is not illustrated concreted. As weak in physical strength is

problematic to be visually depicted physically it was illustrated in an underlying approach

[See Appendix SS3; “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Damsel in Distress”]. This

illustration alludes to the lack of strength that Snow White possesses by depicting her as

not being able to walk and instead is being carried off by the prince, her lack of strength

is illustrated through his demonstration of it. The illustration creates the notion that

females do not have to obtain or demonstrate physical strength in the presence of a male.

Like the subcategory of weak in physical strength, receives/follows advice is only

illustrated concretely in one screenshot for the traditional films. Although this action was

verbally alluded to it was only physically present in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs

and was not illustrated in any of the other three movies in both the traditional and

contemporary category. Snow White is depicted being led by the forest animals through

the woods after asking for help in finding shelter [See Appendix SS2; “Snow White and

the Seven Dwarfs: Damsel in Distress”]. Not only is she physically led by the animals,

who initially lead her by grabbing ahold of her cape and leading her, but once they let go

she continues behind them. Depictions like this one create the presumption that females

are too weak to carry out certain task, even in regards to physical strength, and therefore

must rely on others human or magical animals for help. By illustrating her, a female,

following the advice of animals it put female comprehension on a lower platform than all

others present in the film. Additionally, the screenshot suggests a rescue by the animals

for Snow White.

This same rescue element was present in the illustration that depicted her as being

weak in physical strength. As the prince carries her off, just as when the animals led her

to the dwarf’s cottage, she is escorted out of a dangerous situation [See Appendix SS2 &

SS3, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs: Damsel in Distress”]. The need of an escort

linked to the female characters creates gender implications of females as the weaker sex.

The illustration of the prince rescuing Snow White [See Appendix SS3; “Snow White and

the Seven Dwarfs: Damsel in Distress”] encompassed the subcategory suggestive attire as

her dress emphasizes her small waist creating a relationship between the female gender

and petite body image especially the element of thinness. The main female characters of

the traditional category are shown in dresses with cinched waists that flare to highlight

the thinness of the waist and illustrate a petite frame. Like Snow White’s depiction this

element is present on Cinderella as well [See Appendix SS1 & SS3; “Cinderella: Damsel

in Distress”]. Both illustrations encompass this visual element and construct an ideal

body image for females. These images imply that despite tasks at hand or life changing

obstacles that are presented to females all women must always look a certain way and

have a certain body style to be rescued, and must therefore strive to be sexually appealing

to males.

However, not only are physical ideals being conveyed but emotional concepts as

well as the emotional subcategory was present in four of the six screenshots in the

traditional category. Although almost every screenshot conveys some degree of emotion

the ones included for analysis illustrate this subcategory concretely as defined in the

methods section of this thesis. Each concrete illustration of emotion for the traditional

princesses was depicted through the physical act of crying. This subcategory was present

in one screenshot for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs [See Appendix SS1; “Snow

White and the Seven Dwarfs: Damsel in Distress”]. After running through the woods

Snow White collapses on the ground in the forest crying. Cinderella illustrated this

element in each screenshot. After having her dress torn apart by her mean stepsisters

Cinderella runs out the house with her face in her hands crying and into the garden where

she collapses on a bench and continues to verbally sob with her face still in her hands

[See Appendix SS1 & SS2; “Cinderella: Damsel in Distress”]. Later after being locked in

the tower by her wicked stepmother Cinderella sobs against the door and tears began to

flow out of her eyes [See Appendix SS3; “Cinderella: Damsel in Distress”]. These visual

illustrations link emotions in general and crying specifically with the female gender

creating gender implications and principles.

Damsel in Distress: Contemporary

Although several subcategories were present in the contemporary category not all

were illustrated in the screenshots chosen for analysis. Receives/follows advice was

rarely depicted concretely and therefore is not present in any of the six screenshot of the

contemporary category. Like the traditional princesses weak in physical strength was

illustrated in one screenshot in the contemporary category. Princess Tiana was falling and

could not physically support herself due to a lack of physical strength [See Appendix

SS3; “The Princess and the Frog: Damsel in Distress”]. Additionally, like the traditional

illustrations the lack of physical strength is visually constructed through a display of the

quality through a male reinforcing earlier established implications. This image also

suggests the act of women needing to be rescued. As Tiana was in a dangerous situation

until prince Naveen’s display of strength saved her, once again associating the act of a

rescue with male characters.

In comparison to their traditional counterparts the female characters of the

contemporary category saw a decrease in the subcategory rescue as well as the

subcategory suggestive attire as they were each present in only one screenshot each.

Although there was a decrease in the quantity of illustrations for suggestive attire there

was an increase in the intensity of the depiction conveying suggestive attire. The

screenshot for this subcategory illustrated princess Tiana with an exposed back [See

Appendix SS2; “The Princess and the Frog: Damsel in Distress”]. This is the only

illustration that shows this manner of exposed skin other than commonly exposed areas

such as arms, hands, feet, facial features and neck. This creates the implication of females

as sexual objects.

Although several subcategories saw a decrease in visual presence in the

screenshots included in the contemporary group the subcategory emotional had an

increased presence. Both princesses of this group were depicted crying, however the

physical feature of tears was not present in any of the four screenshots that illustrated this

subcategory. Princess Tiana is illustrated crying in two separate depictions [See

Appendix SS1 & SS2; “The Princess and the Frog: Damsel in Distress”]. In each frame

her emotions are the focus of the shot as she appears centered and against drab

backgrounds. Furthermore, these depictions have hand gestures, which highlight the

emotion being conveyed. The illustrations are visually constructed to clearly identify the

emotion of crying. Similar hand gestures are present in both screenshots depicting crying

in Tangled [See Appendix SS1 & SS3; “Tangled: Damsel in Distress”]. By highlighting

the action it creates a stronger association with the character. However, unlike The

Princess and the Frog, Tangled pairs Rapunzel with Flynn in each depiction, which looks

upon her emotionless. These images clearly define and provide propositions on gender

association of males as levelheaded and females as emotional.

Additionally this category, emotional, concretely illustrated fear. It was present in

the most recent contemporary film Tangled. While traveling through the woods Rapunzel

and Flynn hear a rustle in the bushes identifying the presence of an unknown creature.

The sound frightens Rapunzel who jumps on Flynn’s back when the animal presents

itself [See Appendix SS2; “Tangled: Damsel in Distress”]. The look present in her eyes,

which are enlarged, convey her fear concretely along with her physical act of hiding

behind him. This illustration creates an associate with the female gender and fear as well

as the male gender and fearlessness.

As this subcategory has continued to maintain a significant presence over the

decades it has created implications not only in the individual films, but across the

complete Disney Princess franchise. The increase illustrations depicting emotional

females and the lack of these specific emotions attached to male characters create gender

implications and standards. Additionally, the associations created through the visual

illustrations of negative emotions with female in contrast to their male counterparts

construct gender connections for those who are view these images.

The overall theme damsel in distress has seen a shift in the illustrations of

suggestive attire. As they have become less frequent the depictions present have

increased in quality and create an intense and penetrating association of females as

sensual objects. Weak in physical strength remained the same across both groups and

continues to be illustrate female lack of strength through the presence of strength in male

characters. There was also a decrease in the rescue scenes as well as receives/follows

advice in the contemporary category compared to their traditional counterparts. However,

the most notable implications were illustrated thorough emotional depictions. Although,

this subcategory was present in both groups contemporary princesses’ depictions

provided intense illustrations to highlight the action and the association with the female

gender. Additionally, the presence of an emotionless male provided further support for

the implications illustrated by the contemporary category.

Color Cue

Disney’s representation of gender perceptions extends across the company, from

the films to the merchandise, specifically the signature appearances for each princess in

the Disney Princess franchise. Over the years as the Disney brand has expanded from

films to various components, specifically merchandise, these elements, have become

significant to the brand for economic purposes. Creating brand association with these

items has been lucrative within the Disney princess franchise as each Disney princess has

a signature outfit. This element creates another avenue for the brand to impart gender

standards in colors, styles, and accessories paired with the outfits.

Films have provided the foundation of the Disney Corporation, in recent decades

merchandise increased revenue and led to the creation of individual brands with the

company. Most notably among these is the Disney princess franchise, which grew out the

need for authentic princess costumes for the characters in films they produced. These

costumes have become the main merchandise method for the brand and trademark item(s)

for each film. Each princess signature look can be replicated by young girls through

genuine costumes, which contain particular features of the visual illustrations in the films.

Masculine colors are present in three of the four Disney princesses signature

outfits examined in this thesis. Patterns regarding color association and style of dress

emerged as well as patterns linking color and accessories. These patterns create and

reinforce feminine standards.

Disney color cues have no chronological significance for the four princesses

analyzed in the four themes. The dresses possessing these masculine colors, specifically

green and blue, which are cool or masculine colors, are present in both the traditional and

contemporary categories. However, patterns across the brand were present for color

association and accessories present and color association and style of dress. These

elements create gender association and can overpower the significance of the colors

present. These features communicate and reinforce gender perceptions and principles.

These elements are present in earliest Disney princess film Snow White and the

Seven Dwarfs. Snow White is illustrated in a simple close fitting dress with a flared

bottom, not an exaggerated ball gown, but the slight flare adds a feminine characteristic.

Encompassing three different colors the dress contains both masculine and feminine

associated features but is majority yellow, which has a neutral color association. The top

of the gown is blue with a white color and red accents along the sleeve. By combining

masculine and feminine associated colors together creates a gender balance. This

combination equalizes the colors creating a neutral association for the princess. However,

the red ribbon present in her hair is added warmth, which created a feminine association

in her ensemble. Overall Snow White has a feminine identity as branded through her

signature outfit color and accessories.

Cinderella’s dress is light blue a masculine color. Like Cinderella, Tiana is

illustrated in a masculine associated cool color. Each color creates an initial masculine

perception for the individual dress. However, like Cinderella various elements in the style

and accessories communicate a stronger feminine association.

Although the masculine colors are present the style of dress, which are depicted

and sold as full gowns, create a feminine relationship. The exaggerated style of dress is

only present for these two, of the four, Disney princesses in the sample. In contrast to

Snow White’s dress, which illustrates a small flare, the full roundness highlights the

ensemble and creates an intense feminine appearance and association. This highlights the

princess feminine connection although depicted in a masculine color. As females are

associated with dresses this intense appearance highlights the feminine element, which

creates an importance of the style of the ball gown that has a feminine association and is

stronger over the color that is of a masculine quality. The visual association with the style

of dress has a stronger effect than the color.

However, the lack of importance in color association of masculine colors is

negated with concrete elements that create feminine association are present. Like, Snow

White, both Cinderella and Tiana have clearly illustrated head accessories. This seeming

insignificant element has a larger interpretation as it conveys feminine qualities of their

signature look with. This element is only present in ensembles that bare masculine colors.

The presence of theses concrete features disassociates the gender perception from the

color and place the gender value on the accessories. This suggestion is further supported

by the presence of gloves and necklaces on the two princesses who appear in masculine

associated colors. These elements are not present for either princess who has feminine

associated colors in her outfit. Additionally, these feminine elements create a feminine

identity for the entire outfit and surpasses the masculine association created by mere

color through the quantity and value of their feminine appeal. Overall both Cinderella and

Tiana, although illustrated in masculine colors, have a feminine identity as created

through their signature outfit style and accessories.

Of the four princesses analyzed Rapunzel, was the only princess whose signature

outfit contained only feminine colors. Although, her dress was feminine in color aspect

there was no exaggeration in the style of the dress. This evidence suggest that color is a

stronger identifier of gender when associated with feminine colors. For Rapunzel there

were no accessories associated with her signature look. Further supporting the suggestion

that feminine color alone create an intense feminine association. Overall Rapunzel has a

feminine identity created solely through the presence of feminine color in her appearance.

The lack of masculine associated clothing style creates an association with dresses

and feminine gender. By illustrating the princess in a dress, as 11 of the 12 Disney

Princesses are, this creates gender standards of acceptable attire for females. The overall

message of the elements featured imply that females can be depicted in masculine colors

but should add feminine associated accessories to negate the male identified features.

Also, that feminine color association is enough to represent female identity as long as

masculine feature are not present. Lastly, it associates feminine attire as acceptable on in

female associates styles specifically dresses.

Overall the color cues present in the signature outfits imply a feminine

association. Although dresses contain masculine colors more often than feminine

elements identifying its connection are represented to create a feminine identity. As both

masculine colored dresses contained long gloves, head accessories, a necklace and are

styled as full ball gowns. These elements, especially in the quantity that is present,

created a stronger feminine identity than offered by the mere color association. In

contrast outfits that contained gender neutrality in color representation featured a

feminine associated element of a head ribbon in her signature appearance. Lastly,

feminine associated colors were not exaggerated in style nor paired with accessories.

Although these elements add feminine association, the lack of these elements present do

not create a masculine identity, just clearer feminine connections.

CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

Disney is a powerful cultural entity that has dominated children’s entertainment

since the late 1930s and continues to do so today. The popularity of the Disney Princess

franchise has continued to increase in popularity and has become a staple of quality

family entertainment. Their popularity is rooted in the foundation provided by the

storyline constructed from age-old fairytales. Their targeted audience, young

impressionable children, create controversy and criticism on the gender implications

created through the films being produced and released. As youth are shaped by their

exposed principles the four above-mentioned themes have significance in creating,

teaching, and reinforcing gender values. Youth of today primarily view Disney films

depicting several gender standards including those mentioned in this thematic analysis

that identified patterns that create gender associations and reinforce gender stereotypes to

viewers.

The visual nature of these depictions engrosses the reader and creates a

connection, which is often admired and imitated. Features that create a connection to

gender are illustrated in a manner that encourages imitation among the viewing audience

who may be unaware as to what is really being taught. Such imitations are then carried

over into everyday life recreating and reinforcing gender roles and stereotypes. These

features play a significant part in understanding and taking action against such gender

stereotypes and their effects on children.

The data collected for the domestic female showed consistency over time with

minor variations. Patterns identified a change overtime in the execution and manner of

domestic illustrations from forced harsh tasks to voluntary pleasurable acts. The

association of such acts, from a negative to a positive connection, create an encouraging

relationship between both the task and gender in current society. Although the reason

behind the domestic acts and the execution of such tasks have evolved, the continued

presence is most significant as its mere presence still creates gender stereotypes in

connection with females to domestic tasks. The consistency of the depictions over the

years create and reinforce gender standards as they continue to be replicated across the

brand. By representing these acts in connection with the female gender shows little

progression as their continued existence align with a traditional societal viewpoint. These

replicated acts paired with repeat viewing continues to emphasis the connection between

domestic acts and the female gender. Additionally, the age element has begun to show

itself as a factor of importance in contemporary films. By depicting young females in

domestic roles it encourages the female gender to acquire and become interested in

domestic work earlier, which is not necessarily a bad thing, but the reasons behind the

domestic acts have not changed as they are still performed for the benefit of others

especially males. As technology has evolved the domestic female has been a consistent

factor in the Disney Princess franchise. Overall, the domestic female theme, that is

present in both traditional and contemporary films, show little meaningful change

overtime.

Heroic male theme produced patterns identifying an overall dramatic shift in

illustrations from traditional male characters to contemporary. In contrast to their

traditional counterparts, who are shown as one-dimensional, contemporary male

characters were complex in the quality of their characteristics and saw an increased

presence in the quantity of their illustrations. The patterns presented by this theme create

gender implications for both male and female characters. As female characters show

minute change, male characters show drastic change chronologically. Changes of this

degree highlight the importance of male characters presence. The evolution of their

depictions change with the times rather than keeping with traditional norms unlike their

female counterparts. These changes in illustrations, as well as the lack thereof, create

gender ideologies. The heroic male theme creates an intensified positive association for

the male gender through the illustrations. Male characters show extensive evolution over

the brand and the depth created from these changes continue to create a positive

association with being male as these characters are linked to honor and strength.

However, traditional princes who were ornamental have a positive gender association as

male characters receive credit for being noble and strong without having to really do

anything expect be male. The positive qualities of the theme are overshadowed by a

negative association through characteristics identifying heroic males as strong,

independent, skilled and intelligent and not extending these qualities to female characters

as well.

Physical appeal showed modification across the subcategory of personal concern

for physical appeal. As traditional princesses were overly concerned with their physical

features contemporary princesses showed less concern for their personal appeal.

However, sometimes less is not always best. Although this element presents underling

gender implications its overall presence has a positive association with the female gender.

The promotion of concern for personal appeal could be seen a powerful and liberating

feature for females in constructing self-worth instead of negative gender standards.

However, the most significant element of the subcategory was it was only illustrated

through female characters. This lack of extension creates gender associations for both

male and females as the category should be illustrated two fold encompassing both

genders. As the quantity of personal concern decreased, this theme saw an increase in

characters who were admired by others for their physical beauty. The subcategory created

additional gender connections by identifying males who were generally cast as the

admirers, while females were often the admired. Once again, this subcategory has the

ability to promote the beneficial and influential female quality of self-worth. However,

these types of roles create gender stereotypes and do not promote or create a progressive

connection to gender.

Contemporary princesses, in the damsel in distress theme, in relation to their

traditional counterparts saw a decrease in several subcategories. This decrease was

present in receiving and following advice, rescuing and suggestive attire. However,

although the quantity of images decreased in suggestive attire there was an increase in the

intensity of the images illustrated. These images still create gender stereotypes and

highlight a negative association with the female gender by presenting the idea of them as

sexual objects. Although weak in physical strength was present across both categories its

consistency conveying the weakness of female characters through the strength of a male

characters creates gender stereotypes for both male and female with a negative

association for female gender. Lastly, as emotional was present in both traditional and

contemporary films the latter saw an increase in their illustrations. The depictions in this

subcategory created patterns that linked emotions, specifically negative emotions of fear

and crying, to female characters. This theme created patterns with an overall negative

association with the female gender and the illustrations created and reinforced negative

female stereotypes that did not extend to both genders and were dominated by female

characters.

Color cue analysis produced several patterns and concluded that each signature

outfit had an overall feminine association although rarely identified solely through color.

This overall implication was created through elements of feminine association, which

showed a greater presence when masculine color cues are present. These associations

were created through the presence of features such as gloves, necklaces, and head

accessories, and only represented when masculine elements of color were presented.

However, when outfits contained only feminine associated colors no additional elements

or accessories were present. There were also no elements that create masculine

representation in any signature outfit. Overall the signature ensemble with masculine

colors presented more feminine associated features to counterbalance the masculine

association and create an overall feminine identity. Additionally, there was no

chronological color pattern identified through this analysis.

From all data examined, both physical actions and visual components, patterns

suggests and support gender implications existence across the brand. These principles are

present and communicated in various elements from the films, through which they are

conveyed concretely, by actions and behaviors and latently in visual aspects, which are

underling correspondents, of color association and cues in signature outfits.

Stereotypes that have been around for centuries are now visually depicted in

current media though Disney films especially in the Disney Princess franchise. Although

not current with the era they are still present and continue to be viewed by the youth of

today. Images providing gender standards for domestic female and heroic male, as well

as those that associate an ideal physical image of gender and damsel in distress were

present in each of the four films analyzed in this thesis. Over the years these illustrations

have changed in the manner through which they are conveyed but the continued presence

reinforce age-old gender standards with a modern spin. Technology plays a major role in

the world of animated films as it has the ability to affect what and how the viewer sees

the illustrations. As technology advances the elements that highlight gender principles

and exaggerate the acts that define gender stereotypes has the ability to become bigger

and better. At what point does it stop being about the storyline and begin being about the

technology and has the animated film industry as a whole reach this point already?

The thesis suggested that female depictions in Disney films have stayed one-

dimensional, as male depictions have evolved substantially as has been supported by

patterns produced in the domestic female and heroic male theme. Be it a traditional

gender image or new age the illustrations continue to revert back to domestic skills and

the ideal image as beauty as a common moderating factor and a main stereotype for

female characters as illustrated through the domestic female, physical appeal and damsel

in distress themes. Disney continues to suggest that domestic work as female tasks, being

male and strong is synonymous, beauty always prevails, and females are emotional.

Over the decades the Disney Corporation has grown and expanded to encompass

various components in addition to the original platform of animated films. However, this

medium, which includes fairy tale based movies, had seen success in years of economic

suffering. The 2008 economic recession had little effect of the company’s profits as they

reported $37.8 billion in sales, making it one of its most profitable years (Giroux &

Pollock, p. 19). During years of decline in societal economic status, the company created

additional avenues of revenue through the creation of sub-brands, most notably the

Disney Princess franchise. Some people had begun to believe that the popularity of the

fairytale in animated films were diminishing. Recent releases through this sub-brand has

seen record ranking success and reestablished interest in both the franchise and the

previous collection of fairytale based princess films. In addition to the resurgence of

popularity in animated fairytale films Disney has continued to extend the fairytale from

its traditional format into the regular film format with human characters. These films,

although suitable for young audiences and older adults, are aimed at the preteen age

bracket, which include children who grew up on Disney films. This new element

provides additional avenues to teach and reinforce gender standards. However, whether

or not this is the aim of the company expansions or if it is all about the bottom line

remain unknown.

The motivation for studying gender stereotypes within the Disney Princess

franchise was due to the lack of analysis on recent films and the scheduled releases of

future films. As Disney continues to release films based off of fairytales with a main

female protagonist and coronate these characters into the franchise it will create

additional data to be analyzed within the brand. Currently there are two princesses, Elsa

and Ana from Frozen, who are awaiting scheduling for coronation into the franchise and

a Frozen 2 film has been confirmed to be in the works. These films will create new

characters for analysis through the four themes and color cue association conducted in

this study.

Limitations and Future Research

This research contributes a unique feature through its examination of color cues in

the signature outfits of each princess included in the sample. As each signature outfit is

available for purchase through various avenues, the Disney store, Disneyland and Disney

World, and online at Disney.com, these costumes began to play a major role in the lives

of many American children, both those who wear them and those who see them worn. No

previous research has covered this aspect of the characters in relation to gender principles

although it is a leading source of revenue for the brand. This study adds a new component

to the body of previously established research.

As this thesis is a thematic analysis and examined only the data from four of the

films, this presented a limitation of the study, as there are seven additional films that

could provide further data and patterns with in the theme presented. Additionally, the

exclusion of verbal language presented a limitation as it is a possible indicator and

reinforce of gender principles because dialogue has to potential to have a powerful

influence on gender perceptions. Lastly, reliability is a common limitation of qualitative

research due to the various interpretations that could be concluded from the data and was

a possible limitation of this study.

Future research could examine the relationship between the gender perceptions

and the role societal revolutions play in changes of gender principles across the Disney

Princess brand. Since this thesis only examines the color association of the four

princesses included in this sample, further research could extend this color cue analysis to

the seven princesses not included and to any additional princesses that join the franchise.

Also, additional research could expand to examine if the differentiation between the

shades of light and dark masculine and feminine colors have significance to gender

perceptions. This thematic analysis provides an overall representation of gender

principles with in the current Disney Princess franchise, but an analysis of each

individual film will provide further insight into the changes over time and additional

themes constructed through recent releases.

Although, the Disney Princess franchise is dedicated to featuring female

characters the male characters have seen the greatest evolution in the capacity of their

characteristics while females characters have seen little significant changes overtime.

Does the Disney Corporation feel as though these depictions are sufficient because they

have continued to draw mass viewers, but then what accounts for the evolution of male

characters. Or do the views and opinions expressed align with the leadership of the

Corporation? These questions warrant additional research into the corporate structure of

the values of those in leadership roles within the Disney Corporation to see how their

values influence the illustrations across the different brands not just the Disney Princess

franchise.

Media today are not what they once were as the presence is ever increasing and

the viewing audience continues to grow. The popularity of mobile technology in cellular

phones, tablets, and computers allows the world of media to find a home any and

everywhere and with anyone. As animated films began to become an individual activity

through these devices, the content that the leading company for children’s entertainment

will continue to criticized and analyzed for their illustrations.

REFERENCES

Primary Sources

Conli, R., Lasseter, J. & Keane, G. (Producers), & Greno, N. & Howard, B. (Directors).

(2010). Tangled [Motion Picture]. United States: Walt Disney Pictures.

Del Vecho, P. & Lasseter, J. (Producers), & Clements, R., & Musker, J. (Directors).

(2009). The princess and the frog [Motion Picture]. United States: Walt Disney

Pictures.

Disney, W. (Producer), & Cottrell, W., Hand, D., Jackson, W., Morey, L., Pearce, P., &

Sharpsteen, B. (Directors). (1937). Snow White and the seven dwarfs [Motion

Picture]. United States: Walt Disney Productions.

Disney, W. (Producer), & Geronimi, C., Jackson, W. & Luske, H. (Directors). (1950).

Cinderella [Motion Picture]. United States: Walt Disney Productions.

Secondary Sources (Books and Journal Articles)

Baker-Sperry, L. (2007). The production of meaning through peer interaction: Children

and Walt Disney’s Cinderella. Sex Roles, 56(11-12), 1-23.

Baker-Sperry, L., & Grauerholz, L. (2003). The pervasiveness and persistence of the

feminine beauty ideal in children’s fairy tales. Gender and Society, 17(5), 711-

726.

Bazzini, D., Curtain, L., Joslin, S., Martz, D., & Regan, S. (2010). Do animated Disney

characters portray and promote the beauty-goodness stereotype? Journal of

Applied Social Psychology, 40(10), 2687-2709.

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative

Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.

Callister, M., Magoffin, D., Moore, J., & Robinson, T. (2007). The portrayal of older

characters in Disney films. Journal of Aging Studies, 21, 203-213.

Cashdan, S. (1999). The witch must die: The hidden meaning of fairy tales. New York,

NY: Basic Books.

Collier-Meek, M. A., Descartes, L., & England, D. E. (2011). Gender role portrayal and

the Disney princesses. Sex Roles, 64, 555-567.

Coyne, S. M., Fraser, A. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Stockdale, L. A. (2013). Is Disney

the nicest place on earth? A content analysis of prosocial behavior in animated

Disney films. Journal of Communication, 63, 393-412.

Cunningham, A. (2014). Walt Disney and the propaganda complex: Government funded

animation and Hollywood complicity during WWII. (Master’s Thesis). University

of Nevada Las Vegas. Las Vegas, NV.

Downey, S. D. (1996). Feminine empowerment in Disney’s Beauty and the Beast.

Women’s Studies in Communication, 19(2), 185-212.

Dundes, L. (2001). Disney’s modern heroine Pocahontas: Revealing age-old gender

stereotypes and role discontinuity under a façade of liberation. The Social Science

Journal, 38(3), 353-365.

Forgacs, D. (2008). Disney animation and the business of childhood. Screen, 33(4), 361-

374.

Fisher, J., & Silber, E. S. (2000). Good and bad beyond belief: Teaching gender lessons

through fairy tales and feminist theory. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 28(3-4), 121-

136.

Frueh, T., & McGhee, P. E. (1980). Television viewing and the learning of sex-role

stereotypes. Sex Roles, 6(2), 179-188.

Gauntlett, D. (2002). Media, gender and identity: An introduction. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Gillam, K., & Wooden, S. R. (2008). Post-princess models of gender: The new man in

Disney/Pixar. Journal of Popular Film and Television, 36(1), 2-8.

Giroux, H. A. (1994). Animating youth: The disneyfication of children’s culture.

Socialist Review, 24(3), 23-55.

Giroux, H. A., & Pollock, G. (2010). The mouse that roared: Disney and the end of

innocence. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Little Publishers.

Green, S., & Oliver, M. B. (2001). Development of gender differences in children’s

responses to animated entertainment. Sex Roles, 45(1-2), 67-88.

Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis.

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publishing Inc.

Haddock, S. A., Lund, L. K., Tanner, L. R., Towbin, M. A., & Zimmerman T. S. (2004).

Images of gender, race, age, and sexual orientation in Disney feature-length

animated films. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 15(4), 19-44.

Hall, S. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying pratices.

Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publishing Inc.

Henke, J. B., Smith, N. J., & Zimmerman-Umble, D. (1996). Construction of the female

self: Feminist readings of the Disney heroine. Women’s Studies in

Communication, 19(2), 229-248.

Hoerrner, K. L. (1996). Gender roles in Disney films: Analyzing behaviors from Snow

White to Simba. Women’s Studies in Communication, 19, 213-228.

Hurley, D. L. (2005). Seeing white: Children of color and the Disney fairy tale princess.

The Journal of Negro Education, 74(3), 221-232.

Karniol, R. (2011). The color of children’s gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 65, 119-132.

Macnamara, Jim. (2005). Media content analysis: Its uses; benefits and best practice

methodology. Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, 6(1), 1–34.

Reichert, T. (2008). Do sexy cover models increase magazine sales? Journal of

Promotion Management, 11(2-3), 113-130.

Schaller, M. (1996). Dynamic social impact and the evolution of social representations: A

natural history of stereotypes. Journal of Communication, 46(4), 64-77.

Signorielli, N. (1990). Children, television, and gender roles: Messages and impact.

Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 11, 50-58.

Soley, L. C., & Reid, L. (1988). Taking it off: Are models in magazine ads wearing less?

Journalism Quarterly, 65(4), 960-966.

Vaismoradi, M., Turuhen, H., & Bondas, T. (2103). Content analysis and thematic

analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nurusing

and Health Sciences, 15, 398-405.

Ward, A. R. (2002). Mouse morality: The rhetoric of Disney animated films. Austin, TX:

University of Texas Press.

Wohlwend, K. E. (2011). “Are you guys girls?”: Boys, identity texts, and Disney princess

play. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 12(1), 3-23.

CIRRICULUM VITAE

Graduate College

University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Tiffany Jade Pelton

Degrees:

Bachelor of Arts, 2009

Southern University and A & M College, Baton Rouge

Thesis Title: Marketing of Gender Stereotypes though Animated Films: A Thematic

Analysis of the Disney Princess Franchise

Thesis Examination Committee:

Chairperson, Gregory Borchard, Ph. D.

Committee Member, Lawrence Mullen, Ph. D.

Committee Member, Olesya Venver, Ph. D.

Graduate Faculty Representative, Maile Chapman, Ph. D.